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Frederik Hendrik / Frederick Henry (1584-1647) was the ruling Prince of Orange and stadtholder of Holland, Guelders, Overijssel, Utrecht and Zeeland. The youngest son of the famed William the Silent, he was the half-brother of the previous Prince of Orange and his predecessor, Maurice, who passed away in 1625. Frederik was born six months before his father's assassination in 1584, and was trained in arms and educated by Maurice.<br/><br/> Frederik proved to be almost as fine a general as his half-brother, as well as a more capable politician and statesman, ruling over the Dutch United Provinces for twenty-two years and waging a successful war against the Spanish Empire. The power of the stadtholderate reached its highest point under him, with the 'Period of Frederik Hendrik' being styled by Dutch writers as a golden age for the young republic.<br/><br/> Frederik managed to secure a concluding peace that legitimised the United Provinces before his death in 1647, finally realising what the Dutch had been seeking for eighty years with the Treaty of Munster, which was formally ratified and signed a year after his death.
Philip IV of Spain (8 April 1605 – 17 September 1665) was King of Spain (as Philip IV in Castile and Philip III in Aragon) and Portugal as Philip III (Filipe III). He ascended the thrones in 1621 and reigned in Spain until his death and in Portugal until 1640. Philip is remembered for his patronage of the arts, including such artists as Diego Velázquez, and his rule over Spain during the Thirty Years' War.<br/><br/> On the eve of his death in 1665, the Spanish Empire had reached approximately 12.2 million square kilometers (4.7 million square miles) in area but in other respects was in decline, a process to which Philip contributed with his inability to achieve successful domestic and military reform.
Philip IV of Spain (8 April 1605 – 17 September 1665) was King of Spain (as Philip IV in Castile and Philip III in Aragon) and Portugal as Philip III (Filipe III). He ascended the thrones in 1621 and reigned in Spain until his death and in Portugal until 1640. Philip is remembered for his patronage of the arts, including such artists as Diego Velázquez, and his rule over Spain during the Thirty Years' War.<br/><br/> On the eve of his death in 1665, the Spanish Empire had reached approximately 12.2 million square kilometers (4.7 million square miles) in area but in other respects was in decline, a process to which Philip contributed with his inability to achieve successful domestic and military reform.
Philip III (14 April 1578 – 31 March 1621) was King of Spain. He was also, as Philip II, King of Portugal, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia and Duke of Milan from 1598 until his death.<br/><br/> The Plaza Mayor was first built (1580–1619) during Philip III's reign. The plaza as we see it today was the work of the Spanish architect Juan de Villanueva (1739 - 1811) who reconstructed the plaza in 1790.
Philip III (14 April 1578 – 31 March 1621) was King of Spain. He was also, as Philip II, King of Portugal, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia and Duke of Milan from 1598 until his death.<br/><br/> The Plaza Mayor was first built (1580–1619) during Philip III's reign. The plaza as we see it today was the work of the Spanish architect Juan de Villanueva (1739 - 1811) who reconstructed the plaza in 1790.
Philip III (14 April 1578 – 31 March 1621) was King of Spain. He was also, as Philip II, King of Portugal, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia and Duke of Milan from 1598 until his death.<br/><br/> The Plaza Mayor was first built (1580–1619) during Philip III's reign. The plaza as we see it today was the work of the Spanish architect Juan de Villanueva (1739 - 1811) who reconstructed the plaza in 1790.
Philip III (14 April 1578 – 31 March 1621) was King of Spain. He was also, as Philip II, King of Portugal, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia and Duke of Milan from 1598 until his death.<br/><br/> The Plaza Mayor was first built (1580–1619) during Philip III's reign. The plaza as we see it today was the work of the Spanish architect Juan de Villanueva (1739 - 1811) who reconstructed the plaza in 1790.
The equestrian statue of Ferdinando I was originally commissioned from an elderly Giambologna (1529 - 1608) and completed by his pupil Pietro Tacca.<br/><br/> Ferdinando I de' Medici (30 July 1549 – 17 February 1609) was Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1587 to 1609, having succeeded his older brother Francesco I.
The equestrian statue of Ferdinando I was originally commissioned from an elderly Giambologna (1529 - 1608) and completed by his pupil Pietro Tacca.<br/><br/> Ferdinando I de' Medici (30 July 1549 – 17 February 1609) was Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1587 to 1609, having succeeded his older brother Francesco I.
The equestrian statue of Ferdinando I was originally commissioned from an elderly Giambologna (1529 - 1608) and completed by his pupil Pietro Tacca.<br/><br/> Ferdinando I de' Medici (30 July 1549 – 17 February 1609) was Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1587 to 1609, having succeeded his older brother Francesco I.
The equestrian statue of Ferdinando I was originally commissioned from an elderly Giambologna (1529 - 1608) and completed by his pupil Pietro Tacca.<br/><br/> Ferdinando I de' Medici (30 July 1549 – 17 February 1609) was Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1587 to 1609, having succeeded his older brother Francesco I.
Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: Copper engraving of Leopold I (1640-1705), 37th Holy Roman emperor, by Nicolas II de Larmessin (1632-1694), c. 1690. Leopold I was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: Portrait medallions of Leopold I (1640-1705), 37th Holy Roman emperor, his wife Eleonore Magdalene and his son King Joseph I, over a view of Augsburg. Copper engraving, c. 1689. Leopold I was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Ferdinand III (1608-1657) was the eldest son of Emperor Ferdinand II. He became Archduke of Austria in 1621, King of Hungary in 1625 and King of Bohemia in 1627. Ferdinand was appointed head of the Imperial Army in 1634 during the Thirty Years' War, and was vital in the negotiation of the Peace of Prague in 1635, the same year he was elected King of Germany. When his father died in 1637, he succeeded him as Holy Roman Emperor.<br/><br/> As emperor, Ferdinand wished for peace with France and Sweden, but the war would drag on for another 11 years, finally ending with the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Composing of the Treaty of Munster with France and the Treaty of Osnabruck with Sweden, the Peace of Westphalia represented a major shift in the concept of sovereign nation-states and European power, especially in terms of national self-determination and non-interference. Ferdinand himself had in 1644 given the right for all rulers of German states to conduct their own foreign policy, which backfired on him and would contribute to the erosion of imperial authority in the Holy Roman Empire.<br/><br/> After the Peace of Westphalia, Ferdinand was busy enforcing and carrying out the terms of the treaty as well as getting rid of foreign soldiery from German lands. He soon reneged on the terms of the treaty by interfering in Italy in 1656, sending an army to assist Spain against France. As he was concluding an alliance with Poland to check Swedish aggression, Ferdinand died in 1657.
Albert II (1397-1439), also known as Albert of Germany and Albert the Magnanimous, was the son of Albert IV, Duke of Austria, succeeding his father at the age of seven in 1404, though he did not become the proper governor of Austria until 1411. Albert married Elisabeth of Luxembourg, heiress of Emperor Sigismund, in 1422.<br/><br/> Albert assisted his father-in-law during the Hussite Wars, and was in turn named as successor in 1423. When Sigismund died in 1437, Albert was crowned King of Hungary a year later. He was crowned King of Bohemia six months afterwards, though he did not obtain actual possession of the country, and was forced to wage war against the Bohemians and their Polish allies. The crown of Germany was given to him in 1438.<br/><br/> Albert died in 1439 while defending Hungary from a Turkish invasion, and despite his short reign was known for being an energetic and warlike prince. He was also known for his harsh treatment of Austria's Jewish community, imprisoning and forcibly converting them or expelling them from Austria. Albert sentenced many Jews to death, burning them at the stake in 1421, destroying their synagogue in Vienna and placing an 'eternal ban' on them.
Rudolf I (1218-1291), also kown as Rudolf of Habsburg, was the son of Count Albert IV of Habsburg, and became count after his father's death in 1239. His godfather was Emperor Frederick II, to whom he paid frequent court visits. Rudolf ended the Great Interregnum that had engulfed the Holy Roman Empire after the death of Frederick when he was elected as King of Germany in 1273.<br/><br/> Rudolf secured the recognition of the Pope by promising to launch a new crusade and renouncing all imperial rights to Rome, the papal territories and Sicily. His main opponent was King Ottokar II of Bohemia, who had refused to acknowledge Rudolf as King of Germany. War was declared against Ottokar in 1276, and he was defeated and killed in 1278 during the Battle on the Marchfeld.<br/><br/> Rudolf was ultimately not entirely successful in restoring internal peace throughout the Holy Roman Empire, lacking the power, resources and determination to truly enforce his established land peaces, with the princes largely left to their own devices. He died in 1291, establishing the powerful Habsburg dynasty but unable to ensure the succession of his son Albert as German king.
Sir Peter Paul Rubens (28 June 1577 – 30 May 1640) was a Flemish Baroque painter. A proponent of an extravagant Baroque style that emphasized movement, colour, and sensuality, Rubens is well known for his Counter-Reformation altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects.<br/><br/> In addition to running a large studio in Antwerp that produced paintings popular with nobility and art collectors throughout Europe, Rubens was a classically educated humanist scholar and diplomat who was knighted by both Philip IV of Spain and Charles I of England. Rubens was a prolific artist. The catalogue of his works by Michael Jaffe lists 1,403 pieces, excluding numerous copies made in his workshop.
Zeng Jing (Tseng Ching, ca. 1564-1647) was a Chinese painter during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644). He was best known as a portrait painter.<br/><br/> Zeng was born in Putian in Fujian province. He lived and worked in Nanjing, but also moved around Hangzhou, Wuzhen, Ningbo, Songjiang, and other cities.<br/><br/> Zeng Jing painted using subtle light and shade, and he was considered by many critics as being significant for his assimilation of illusionist concave and convex method of western oil painting. A common feature of his portraiture is the presence of large areas of empty spaces surrounding the figure.
The Dutch East India Company (VOC) was set up in 1602 to gain a foothold in the East Indies (Indonesia) for the Dutch in the lucrative spice trade, which until that point was dominated by the Portuguese.<br/><br/> It was a chartered company granted a monopoly by the Dutch government to carry out colonial activities in Asia, including establishing colonies in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and India.
'Nazi plunder' refers to art theft and other items stolen as a result of the organized looting of European countries during the time of the Third Reich by agents acting on behalf of the ruling Nazi Party of Germany. Plundering occurred from 1933 until the end of World War II, although most plunder was acquired during the war. In addition to gold, silver and currency, cultural items of great significance were stolen, including paintings, ceramics, books, and religious treasures.<br/><br/> Although most of these items were recovered by agents of the Monuments, Fine Arts, and Archives program (MFAA), affectionately referred to as the Monuments Men, on behalf of the Allies immediately following the war, many are still missing.
Sadr ad-Din Muhammad Shiraz was an Iranian Shia Islamic philosopher and theologian who led the Iranian cultural renaissance in the 17th century.<br/><br/> Mulla Sadra's philosophy ambitiously synthesized Avicennism, Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi's Illuminationist philosophy, Ibn Arabi's Sufi metaphysics, and the theology of the Ash'ari school and Twelvers.
The Story of the Western Wing or <i>Xixixiang Ji</i>, also translated as Romance of the Western Chamber, is one of the most famous Chinese dramatic works. It was written by the Yuan dynasty playwright Wang Shifu, and set during the Tang dynasty (618-907).<br/><br/> it is the story of a young couple consummating their love without parental approval, and has been seen both as a 'lover's bible' and 'potentially dangerous', as readers were considered in danger of pining away under its influence.
Brueghel's satirical comment reflects the collapse of 'Tulipomania' in the 1640s. In the painting, speculators are depicted as brainless monkeys in contemporary upper-class dress. In a commentary on the economic folly of Tulipomania, one monkey urinates on the previously valuable plants, others appear in debtor's court and one is carried away to the grave.<br/><br/> Tulip mania or tulipomania (Dutch names include: tulpenmanie, tulpomanie, tulpenwoede, tulpengekte and bollengekte) was a period in the Dutch Golden Age during which contract prices for bulbs of the recently introduced tulip reached extraordinarily high levels and then suddenly collapsed.<br/><br/> At the peak of tulip mania, in February 1637, some single tulip bulbs sold for more than 10 times the annual income of a skilled craftsman.
Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram Shah Jahan I (1592 –1666), or Shah Jahan, from the Persian meaning ‘king of the world’, was the fifth Mughal ruler in India and a favourite of his legendary grandfather Akbar the Great.<br/><br/> He is best known for commissioning the ‘Phadshahnamah’ as a chronicle of his reign, and for the building of the Taj Mahal in Agra as a tomb for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Under Shah Jahan, the Mughal Empire attained its highest union of strength and magnificence. The opulence of Shah Jahan’s court and his famous Peacock Throne was the wonder of all the European travelers and ambassadors. His political efforts encouraged the emergence of large centers of commerce and crafts—such as Lahore, Delhi, Agra and Ahmedabad—linked by roads and waterways to distant places and ports. He moved the capital from Agra to Delhi. Under Shah Jahan's rule, the Red Fort and Jama Masjid in Delhi were built, the Shalimar Gardens of Lahore, sections of the Lahore Fort and his father's mausoleum.
Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb (c. 1138 – March 4, 1193), better known in the Western world as Saladin, was a Kurdish Muslim, who became the first Ayyubid Sultan of Egypt and Syria. He led Islamic opposition to the Franks and other European Crusaders in the Levant.<br/><br/> At the height of his power, he ruled over Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Hejaz, and Yemen. He led the Muslims against the Crusaders and eventually recaptured Palestine from the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem after his victory in the Battle of Hattin.
The Safavid dynasty (Persian: سلسلهٔ صفويان‎; Azerbaijani: صفویلر) was one of the most significant ruling dynasties of Iran. They ruled one of the greatest Persian empires since the Muslim conquest of Persia and established the Twelver school of Shi'a Islam as the official religion of their empire, marking one of the most important turning points in Muslim history.<br/><br/> The Safavids ruled from 1501 to 1722 (experiencing a brief restoration from 1729 to 1736) and at their height, they controlled all of modern Islamic Republic of Iran, Republic of Azerbaijan and Republic of Armenia, most of Iraq, Georgia, Afghanistan, and the Caucasus, as well as parts of Pakistan, Turkmenistan and Turkey. Safavid Iran was one of the Islamic 'gunpowder empires', along with its neighbours, the Ottoman and Mughal empires.
Fort Kochi was once capital of Portuguese India and later Dutch India. The grand fort at Kochi, was built in 1503 by the Portuguese as Fort Immanuel, in honour of the Great Portuguese Emperor- King Immanuel.<br/><br/> The area marked the first territory in India, to be managed by Europeans, granted by H.H Unni Goda Varma Thirumalpadu Maharaja of Kochi (Trimumpara Raja in Portuguese records) as a silver grant to Afonso de Albuquerque, the first Head of Portuguese India and second Portuguese Governor.
Mughal period miniature painting from an album featuring portraits of Timur the Great and his descendants, mid-17th century
Nur-ud-din Salim Jahangir (20 September 1569 – 8 November 1627) was the ruler of the Mughal Empire from 1605 until his death in 1627. The name Jahangir is from Persian meaning 'Conqueror of the World'. Nur-ud-din or Nur al-Din is an Arabic name which means 'Light of the Faith'. Born as Prince Muhammad Salim, he was the third and eldest surviving son of Mogul Emperor Akbar. His mother was the Rajput Princess of Amber, Jodhabai (born Rajkumari Hira Kunwari, eldest daughter of Raja Bihar Mal or Bharmal, Raja of Amber, India).<br/><br/> Mughal period miniature painting from an album featuring portraits of Timur the Great and his descendants, mid-17th century
Nur-ud-din Salim Jahangir (20 September 1569 – 8 November 1627) was the ruler of the Mughal Empire from 1605 until his death in 1627. The name Jahangir is from Persian meaning 'Conqueror of the World'. Nur-ud-din or Nur al-Din is an Arabic name which means 'Light of the Faith'. Born as Prince Muhammad Salim, he was the third and eldest surviving son of Mogul Emperor Akbar. His mother was the Rajput Princess of Amber, Jodhabai (born Rajkumari Hira Kunwari, eldest daughter of Raja Bihar Mal or Bharmal, Raja of Amber, India).<br/><br/> Mughal period miniature painting from an album featuring portraits of Timur the Great and his descendants, mid-17th century
Mughal period miniature painting from an album featuring portraits of Timur the Great and his descendants, mid-17th century
Mughal period miniature painting from an album featuring portraits of Timur the Great and his descendants, mid-17th century
While Mathieuson and his wife dress in the demure Protestant Dutch style of the times, their overdressed slave holds a parasol, or 'pajong', above them. With his cane, the merchant indicates a fleet of ships belonging to the Dutch East India Company (VOC). In the background lies the partially walled city of Batavia, the hub of the VOC’s operations in Asia.<br/><br/> The Dutch East India Company, or VOC, was a chartered company granted a monopoly by the Dutch government to carry out colonial activities in Asia. It was the first multinational corporation in the world and the first company to issue stock. It was also arguably the world's first megacorporation, possessing quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, imprison and execute convicts, negotiate treaties, coin money and establish colonies.<br/><br/> The VOC was set up in 1602 to gain a foothold in the East Indies (Indonesia) for the Dutch in the lucrative spice trade, which until that point was dominated by the Portuguese.<br/><br/> Between 1602 and 1796, the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade on 4,785 ships, and netted more than 2.5 million tons of Asian trade goods.
The future Empress Xiao Kang Zhang was born into the Han Chinese Tong clan. Although her family was of Jurchen (Manchu) origin, it had lived amongst the Han Chinese for many generations. When Lady Tong entered the imperial court of the Shunzhi Emperor, she was given the title 'Imperial Consort Tong'. She was elevated to the rank of 'Noble Consort' in 1654 when she bore the Emperor a male heir, Prince Xuanye (the later Kangxi Emperor).<br/><br/> When the Shunzhi Emperor died in 1661 and Xuanye was chosen to succeed to the imperial throne as the Kangxi Emperor, the Noble Consort Tong was given the title of 'Dowager Empress Cihe' as the new Emperor's mother. She died of an unknown illness on 20 March 1663 inside the Imperial Palace, at the age of 23. Although she had never been Empress during the reign of her husband, the Shunzhi Emperor, she was given the posthumous title of Empress Xiao Kang Zhang, by which she is still commonly known today.
The future Empress Xiao Kang Zhang was born into the Han Chinese Tong clan. Although her family was of Jurchen (Manchu) origin, it had lived amongst the Han Chinese for many generations. When Lady Tong entered the imperial court of the Shunzhi Emperor, she was given the title 'Imperial Consort Tong'. She was elevated to the rank of 'Noble Consort' in 1654 when she bore the Emperor a male heir, Prince Xuanye (the later Kangxi Emperor).<br/><br/> When the Shunzhi Emperor died in 1661 and Xuanye was chosen to succeed to the imperial throne as the Kangxi Emperor, the Noble Consort Tong was given the title of 'Dowager Empress Cihe' as the new Emperor's mother. She died of an unknown illness on 20 March 1663 inside the Imperial Palace, at the age of 23. Although she had never been Empress during the reign of her husband, the Shunzhi Emperor, she was given the posthumous title of Empress Xiao Kang Zhang, by which she is still commonly known today.
Map of Guinea and surrounding regions. The Benin Kingdom is indicated in the east. Amsterdam, Blaeu, J. & G. 1640-50.
The Roman mythographer Julius Pollux, writing in the 2nd century BCE, asserts (Onomasticon I, 45–49) that Purple Tyrian dye was first discovered by Heracles, or rather, by his dog, whose mouth was stained purple from chewing on snails along the coast of the Levant.<br/><br/> However, the recent archaeological discovery of substantial numbers of Murex shells on Crete suggests that the Minoans may have pioneered the extraction of Imperial purple centuries before the Tyrians. Dating from collocated pottery suggests the dye may have been produced during the Middle Minoan period in the 20th–18th century BCE. Accumulations of crushed murex shells from a hut at the site of Coppa Nevigata in southern Italy may indicate production of purple dye there from at least the 18th century BCE.