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Mary II was Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland and daughter of King James II and VII. She was married to her cousin, William of Orange, in 1677 at the age of fifteen. When her father, a Roman Catholic, ascended to the throne in 1685 to the displeasure of the mainly Protestant British populace, her husband was convinced to invade England in 1689 and overthrow her father in what was known as the 'Glorious Revolution'.<br/><br/> Mary ruled as equal sovereign with her husband, their joint reign often referred to as that of William and Mary, though in truth she ceded most of her authority to her husband when he was in England; despite this, William relied heavily on her, and she would act alone whenever William was militarily engaged abroad. Mary proved herself to be a powerful and effective ruler until her death in 1694.
William III of England (1650-1702), commonly known as William of Orange and in Scotland as William II (informally as 'King Billy'), was a Dutch Prince of Orange. Baptised as William Henry, he was Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Gelderland, Overijssel and Utrecht in the Dutch Republic. He inherited the principality of Orange from his father, William II, who died from smallpox a week before his son's birth; his mother Mary was the daughter of King Charles I of England.<br/><br/> William, as a Protestant, participated in several wars against King Louis XIV of France, who was a Catholic, becoming a champion of the faith. In 1677, he married his cousin Mary, daughter of his uncle James, the Duke of York. In 1688, William III invaded England at the behest of influential British political and religious leaders in what became known as the 'Glorious Revolution', to overthrow his uncle, who had become an unpopular and Catholic king.<br/><br/> His campaign was successful and he deposed his uncle. William ruled as joint sovereigns with his wife Mary until her death in 1694, after which he ruled alone. His reign marked the start of the transformation from the direct rule of the Stuarts to the more Parliament-centred rule of the House of Hanover.
Pieter Mortier (1661-1711) was a Dutch engraver and mapmaker from the Northern Netherlands. He was born in Leiden, and travelled to Paris in 1681-1685, eventually winning the privilege in 1690 to publish atlases and maps by French publishers in Amsterdam, where he would die.
Ataulf (also Athavulf, Atawulf, or Athaulf, Latinized as Ataulphus, c. 370 – 15 August 415) was king of the Visigoths from 411 to 415. During his reign, he transformed the Visigothic state from a tribal kingdom to a major political power of Late Antiquity.
Chen Hongshou (1598 - 1652), courtesy name Zhanghou and pseudonym Laolian, was a Chinese painter from Zhuji who lived during the late Ming Dynasty era. Chen trained under the famed artist Lan Ying, and developed a plump and profound brushwork style that lent itself to illustrations and tapestry portraits.<br/><br/> Chen Zi (1634 - 1713), also from Zhuji, was the son of Chen Hongshou and a renowned artist in his own right.
Chen Hongshou (1598 - 1652), courtesy name Zhanghou and pseudonym Laolian, was a Chinese painter from Zhuji who lived during the late Ming Dynasty era. Chen trained under the famed artist Lan Ying, and developed a plump and profound brushwork style that lent itself to illustrations and tapestry portraits.<br/><br/> Chen Zi (1634 - 1713), also from Zhuji, was the son of Chen Hongshou and a renowned artist in his own right.
Chen Hongshou (1598 - 1652), courtesy name Zhanghou and pseudonym Laolian, was a Chinese painter from Zhuji who lived during the late Ming Dynasty era. Chen trained under the famed artist Lan Ying, and developed a plump and profound brushwork style that lent itself to illustrations and tapestry portraits.<br/><br/> Chen Zi (1634 - 1713), also from Zhuji, was the son of Chen Hongshou and a renowned artist in his own right.
The Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, usually just called the Frari, is a church located in the Campo dei Frari at the heart of the San Polo district of Venice, Italy.<br/><br/> In 1231, under Doge Jacopo Tiepolo, the city donated land at this site to establish a monastery and church belonging to the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor. This edifice proved too small and a three nave church was begun in 1250, and not completed until 1338. Work almost immediately began on its much larger replacement, the current church, which took over a century to build.
The Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, usually just called the Frari, is a church located in the Campo dei Frari at the heart of the San Polo district of Venice, Italy.<br/><br/> In 1231, under Doge Jacopo Tiepolo, the city donated land at this site to establish a monastery and church belonging to the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor. This edifice proved too small and a three nave church was begun in 1250, and not completed until 1338. Work almost immediately began on its much larger replacement, the current church, which took over a century to build.
The Pentaglot Dictionary (<i>Yuzhi Wuti Qing Wenjian</i>), also known as the Manchu Polyglot Dictionary, was a dictionary of major imperial languages compiled in the late Qianlong era (1711-1799) of the Qing dynasty (1644-1912), said to have been compiled some time in 1794. The work contains Manchu lexemes and their translations into various administrative languages such as Tibetan, Mongolian, post-classical or vernacular Chagatai (Eastern Turki, now known as Modern Uyghur since 1921) and Chinese.
Sir Christopher Wren PRS (30 October 1632 – 8 March 1723) is one of the most highly acclaimed English architects in history. He was accorded responsibility for rebuilding 52 churches in the City of London after the Great Fire in 1666, including what is regarded as his masterpiece, St. Paul's Cathedral, on Ludgate Hill, completed in 1710.<br/><br/> Educated in Latin and Aristotelian physics at the University of Oxford, Wren was a notable anatomist, astronomer, geometer, and mathematician-physicist, as well as an architect. He was a founder of the Royal Society (president 1680–82), and his scientific work was highly regarded by Isaac Newton and Blaise Pascal.
Chen Hongshou (1598 - 1652), courtesy name Zhanghou and pseudonym Laolian, was a Chinese painter from Zhuji who lived during the late Ming Dynasty era. Chen trained under the famed artist Lan Ying, and developed a plump and profound brushwork style that lent itself to illustrations and tapestry portraits.<br/><br/> Chen Zi (1634 - 1713), also from Zhuji, was the son of Chen Hongshou and a renowned artist in his own right.
The Qianlong Emperor (25 September 1711 – 7 February 1799) was the fifth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. The fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor, he reigned officially from 11 October 1736 to 7 February 1795.<br/><br/> On 8 February, he abdicated in favor of his son, the Jiaqing Emperor - a filial act in order not to reign longer than his grandfather, the illustrious Kangxi Emperor. Despite his retirement, however, he retained ultimate power until his death in 1799.<br/><br/> Although his early years saw the continuity of an era of prosperity in China, he held an unrelentingly conservative attitude. As a result, the Qing Dynasty's comparative decline began later in his reign.
Empress Xiao Xian Chun, also known as Empress Xiao Xian, (28 March 1712 – 8 April 1748). Xiao Xian Chun was a daughter of Li Rongbao, and the elder sister of Fu Heng of the Manchu Fuca clan. She was the first Empress Consort of the Qianlong Emperor of China (1711 - 1799). Lady Fuca married Prince Hong Li (the future Qianlong Emperor) in the fifth reign year of the Yong Zheng Emperor in 1727 and was made Empress in 1736 with the title of Empress Xiao Xian. In 1728 she gave birth to the Qianlong Emperor's first daughter. Two years later, Fuca gave birth to the Emperor's second son and one year later another daughter. In 1746, she gave birth to the Emperor's seventh son. The Empress often joined the Emperor on his trips. In 1748, during one of these trips, the Empress fell ill on board a boat and died on it. She was only 36 years old. After Empress Xiao Xian Chun was interred in the Yuling Mausoleum, the Qianlong Emperor would often visit her grave.
The Imperial Noble Consort Hui Xian (1711 - 1745), came from the Manchu Gao clan. Her clan name was later changed to Gaogiya during Emperor Jiaqing's reign. Her father was the Qing Dynasty scholar Gao Bin (died 1755). Lady Gaogiya became an imperial consort of the Qianlong Emperor during Emperor Yongzheng's reign. When in 1735 Emperor Qianlong ascended the throne, Lady Gaogiya was granted the title of 'Noble Consort'. Lady Gaogiya died in the tenth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, and was given the posthumous title of Imperial Noble Consort Hui-Xian. Several years later, she was interred in the Yuling mausoleum together with Empress Xiao Xian Chun who died three years after her.
The Imperial Noble Consort Hui Xian (1711 - 1745), came from the Manchu Gao clan. Her clan name was later changed to Gaogiya during Emperor Jiaqing's reign. Her father was the Qing Dynasty scholar Gao Bin (died 1755). Lady Gaogiya became an imperial consort of the Qianlong Emperor during Emperor Yongzheng's reign. When in 1735 Emperor Qianlong ascended the throne, Lady Gaogiya was granted the title of 'Noble Consort'. Lady Gaogiya died in the tenth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, and was given the posthumous title of Imperial Noble Consort Hui-Xian. Several years later, she was interred in the Yuling mausoleum together with Empress Xiao Xian Chun who died three years after her.
The Qianlong Emperor (25 September 1711 – 7 February 1799) was the fifth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. The fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor, he reigned officially from 11 October 1736 to 7 February 1795. On 8 February, he abdicated in favor of his son, the Jiaqing Emperor - a filial act in order not to reign longer than his grandfather, the illustrious Kangxi Emperor. Despite his retirement, however, he retained ultimate power until his death in 1799. Although his early years saw the continuity of an era of prosperity in China, he held an unrelentingly conservative attitude. As a result, the Qing Dynasty's comparative decline began later in his reign.
Blessed Joseph Vaz (April 21, 1651, Benaulim – January 16, 1711, Kandy) was a Catholic Oratorian priest from Goa. He is known as the Apostle of Ceylon. He entered Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) when, due to the Dutch colonial occupation, Calvinism was the official religion. He traveled throughout the island bringing the Eucharist and the sacraments to clandestine groups of Catholics. Later in his mission he found shelter in the Kandyan kingdom where he was able to work freely. At the time of his death he managed to rebuild the Catholic church on the island. On January 21, 1995, Joseph Vaz was beatified by Pope John Paul II in Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Oiran (花魁) were the courtesans of Edo period Japan. The oiran were considered a type of yūjo (遊女) 'woman of pleasure' or prostitute. However, they were distinguished from the yūjo in that they were entertainers, and many became celebrities of their times outside the pleasure districts. Their art and fashions often set trends among the wealthy and, because of this, cultural aspects of oiran traditions continue to be preserved to this day.<br/><br/> The oiran arose in the Edo period (1600–1868). At this time, laws were passed restricting brothels to walled districts set some distance from the city center. In the major cities these were the Shimabara in Kyoto, the Shinmachi in Osaka, and the Yoshiwara in Edo (present-day Tokyo).<br/><br/> These rapidly grew into large, self-contained 'pleasure quarters' offering all manner of entertainments. Within, a courtesan’s birth rank held no distinction, which was fortunate considering many of the courtesans originated as the daughters of impoverished families who were sold into this lifestyle as indentured servants. Instead, they were categorized based on their beauty, character, education, and artistic ability.<br/><br/> Among the oiran, the tayū (太夫) was considered the highest rank of courtesan and were considered suitable for the daimyo or feudal lords. In the mid-1700s courtesan rankings began to disappear and courtesans of all classes were collectively known simply as 'oiran'.<br/><br/> The word oiran comes from the Japanese phrase oira no tokoro no nēsan (おいらの所の姉さ) which translates as 'my elder sister'. When written in Japanese, it consists of two kanji, 花 meaning 'flower', and 魁 sansmeaning 'leader' or 'first', hence 'Leading Flower' or 'First Flower'.
Ishikawa Toyonobu (石川 豊信, 1711 - July 1, 1785) was a Japanese ukiyo-e print artist. He is sometimes said to have been the same person as Nishimura Shigenobu, a contemporary ukiyo-e artist and student of Nishimura Shigenaga about whom very little is known.<br/><br/> A pupil of Nishimura Shigenaga, Toyonobu produced many monochrome 'lacquer prints' (urushi-e) which reflected the influence of Okumura Masanobu as well. Many of these were yakusha-e (actor prints) and bijinga (images of beautiful women), including images of standing courtesans, whose faces conveyed an impassivity typical of the works of the Kaigetsudō school.<br/><br/> Later in his career, Toyonobu became one of the leading producers of color prints, chiefly benizuri-e ('rose prints'), but stopped producing ukiyo-e shortly after Suzuki Harunobu pioneered the full-color print (nishiki-e) in 1765.
The Qianlong Emperor (Chinese pinyin: Qianlong Di; Wade–Giles: Chien-lung Ti) was the sixth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. The fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor, he reigned officially from 11 October 1736 to 7 February 1795. On 8 February (the first day of that lunar year), he abdicated in favor of his son, the Jiaqing Emperor - a filial act in order not to reign longer than his grandfather, the illustrious Kangxi Emperor. Despite his retirement, however, he retained ultimate power until his death in 1799. Although his early years saw the continuity of an era of prosperity in China, he held an unrelentingly conservative attitude. As a result, the Qing Dynasty's comparative decline began later in his reign.
Nam Gu-man (1629-1711) served as rector of the National Confucian Academy and minister of punishments.<br/><br/> In 1683 when the Westerners (Seoin) faction split into the Old Doctrine (Noron) and the Young Doctrine (Soron), he led the latter group.