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Josef Mánes (12 May 1820, Prague – 9 December 1871, Prague) was a Czech painter. He produced many paintings in every genre from landscapes and portraits to ethnographic and botanical studies. Although his work was little understood or appreciated in his lifetime, he is now considered to be one of the greatest Czech painters.
Josef Mánes (12 May 1820, Prague – 9 December 1871, Prague) was a Czech painter. He produced many paintings in every genre from landscapes and portraits to ethnographic and botanical studies. Although his work was little understood or appreciated in his lifetime, he is now considered to be one of the greatest Czech painters.
Josef Mánes (12 May 1820, Prague – 9 December 1871, Prague) was a Czech painter. He produced many paintings in every genre from landscapes and portraits to ethnographic and botanical studies. Although his work was little understood or appreciated in his lifetime, he is now considered to be one of the greatest Czech painters.
Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849) was a renowned arist and ukyo-e painter of the late Edo Period. Born in Edo, Hokusai was from an artisan family and bore the childhood name of Tokitaro. As he grew and became an artist, he would use more than thirty names throughout his lifetime, exceeding that of any other major Japanese artist.<br/><br/> His best known work was the series 'Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji', which secured his fame not only in Japan but also overseas. Though he had a long career, his most important work was arguably produced after he turned 60, when his work transformed the artwork of ukiyo-e from not just focusing on courtesans and actors to also portraying landscapes, animals and plants.
Ludwig van Beethoven (17 December 1770 – 26 March 1827) was a German composer. A crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western art music, he remains one of the most famous and influential of all composers.<br/><br/> His best-known compositions include 9 symphonies, 5 piano concertos, 1 violin concerto, 32 piano sonatas, 16 string quartets, his great Mass the <i>Missa solemnis</i> and an opera, <i>Fidelio</i>.
George III (George William Frederick) was born on the 4th June 1738 and died at the age of 79 on the 29th January 1820. He was King of Great Britain and Ireland from 25th October 1760 until the union of the two countries on the 1st January 1801, after which he was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death.
In 1624, Sultan Agung of Mataram conquered Madura and the island's government was brought under the Cakraningrats, a single princely line. The Cakrangingrat family opposed Central Javanese rule and often conquered large parts of Mataram.<br/><br/> In a 1743 treaty with the Dutch, Pakubuwono I ceded full sovereignty of Madura to the Dutch. The Dutch continued Madura's administrative divisions of four states each with their own regent. The island was initially important as a source of colonial troops and in the second half of the nineteenth century it became the main source of salt for Dutch-controlled territories in the archipelago.
Victor Marie Hugo 26 February 1802 – 22 May 1885) was a French poet, novelist, and dramatist of the Romantic movement. He is considered one of the greatest and best known French writers. In France, Hugo's literary fame comes first from his poetry but also rests upon his novels and his dramatic achievements. Among many volumes of poetry, Les Contemplations and La Légende des siècles stand particularly high in critical esteem.<br/><br/> Outside France, his best-known works are the acclaimed novels Les Miserables, 1862, and Notre-Dame de Paris, 1831 (known in English as The Hunchback of Notre-Dame). He also produced more than 4,000 drawings, which have since been admired for their beauty, and earned widespread respect as a campaigner for social causes such as the abolition of the death penalty.<br/><br/> Though a committed royalist when he was young, Hugo's views changed as the decades passed, and he became a passionate supporter of republicanism; his work touches upon most of the political and social issues and artistic trends of his time. He was buried in the Pantheon. His legacy has been honored in many ways, including his portrait being placed on francs.
Amantine-Lucile-Aurore Dupin (1 July 1804 – 8 June 1876), best known by her pseudonym George Sand, was a French novelist and memoirist. She is equally well known for her much publicized romantic affairs with a number of artists, including Polish-French composer and pianist Frederic Chopin and the writer Alfred de Musset.
Yashima Gakutei was a Japanese artist and poet who was a pupil of both Totoya Hokkei and Hokusai. Gakutei is best known for his kyoka poetry and surimono woodblock works.
In 1624, Sultan Agung of Mataram conquered Madura and the island's government was brought under the Cakraningrats, a single princely line. The Cakrangingrat family opposed Central Javanese rule and often conquered large parts of Mataram.<br/><br/> In a 1743 treaty with the Dutch, Pakubuwono I ceded full sovereignty of Madura to the Dutch. The Dutch continued Madura's administrative divisions of four states each with their own regent. The island was initially important as a source of colonial troops and in the second half of the nineteenth century it became the main source of salt for Dutch-controlled territories in the archipelago.
François Auguste Rene Rodin (12 November 1840 – 17 November 1917), known as Auguste Rodin, was a celebrated French sculptor and artist.
Minamoto no Yorimitsu (948 – August 29, 1021), also known as Minamoto no Raiko, served the regents of the Fujiwara clan along with his brother Yorinobu, taking the violent measures the Fujiwara were themselves unable to take. He is one of the earliest Minamoto of historical note for his military exploits, and is known for quelling the bandits of Oeyama.<br/><br/> His loyal service earned him the governorships of Izu Province, Kozuke and a number of others in turn, as well as a number of other high government positions. Yorimitsu served as commander of a regiment of the Imperial Guard, and as a secretary in the Ministry of War. When his father Minamoto no Mitsunaka died, he inherited Settsu Province.<br/><br/> Yorimitsu features in a number of legends and tales, including the legend of Kintaro (Golden Boy aka Sakata no Kintoki), the legend of Shuten Doji, and the legend of Tsuchigumo.
Zhu Ling (active c. 1820-1850) was a Chinese painter living in the latter years of the Qing Dynasty period. He was active during the mid-decades of the 19th century, though there are no records on his birth and death dates.
Henri Rene Albert Guy de Maupassant (5 August 1850 – 6 July 1893) was a French writer, remembered as a master of the short story form, and as a representative of the naturalist school of writers, who depicted human lives and destinies and social forces in disillusioned and often pessimistic terms.
Sir Charles D'Oyly was a talented amateur painter who entered the service of the East India Company in 1798 and held several government posts. Whilst in Dacca he met George Chinnery and went on painting expeditions with the celebrated artist with whom he became a close friend. One of his most productive periods was in Patna from 1821 until 1831, during which he held the posts of Opium Agent and the Commercial Resident, producing numerous paintings and sketches.<br/><br/> Gaya, in the province of Bihar, is one of the most sacred places for Hindus, where pilgrims come from all over India to offer pindas for the peace of departed souls. The centre for such pilgrimage is the Vishnupad temple, in which the inner sanctum is said to contain Vishnu's footprints.
In 1624, Sultan Agung of Mataram conquered Madura and the island's government was brought under the Cakraningrats, a single princely line. The Cakrangingrat family opposed Central Javanese rule and often conquered large parts of Mataram.<br/><br/> In a 1743 treaty with the Dutch, Pakubuwono I ceded full sovereignty of Madura to the Dutch. The Dutch continued Madura's administrative divisions of four states each with their own regent. The island was initially important as a source of colonial troops and in the second half of the nineteenth century it became the main source of salt for Dutch-controlled territories in the archipelago.
Oscar-Claude Monet (14 November 1840 – 5 December 1926) was a founder of French Impressionist painting, and the most consistent and prolific practitioner of the movement's philosophy of expressing one's perceptions before nature, especially as applied to <i>plein-air</i> landscape painting.<br/><br/> The term 'Impressionism' is derived from the title of his painting <i>Impression, soleil levant</i> (Impression, Sunrise), which was exhibited in 1874 in the first of the independent exhibitions mounted by Monet and his associates as an alternative to the Salon de Paris.
Yashima Gakutei was a Japanese artist and poet who was a pupil of both Totoya Hokkei and Hokusai. Gakutei is best known for his <i>kyoka</i> poetry and <i>surimono</i> woodblock works.
Sarah Bernhardt (23 October 1844 – 26 March 1923) was a French stage and early film actress. She was referred to as 'the most famous actress the world has ever known', and is regarded as one of the finest actors of all time.<br/><br/> Bernhardt made her fame on the stages of France in the 1870s, at the beginning of the Belle Epoque period, and was soon in demand in Europe and the Americas. She developed a reputation as a sublime dramatic actress and tragedienne, earning the nickname 'The Divine Sarah'. In her later career she starred in some of the earliest films ever produced.
In 1624, Sultan Agung of Mataram conquered Madura and the island's government was brought under the Cakraningrats, a single princely line. The Cakrangingrat family opposed Central Javanese rule and often conquered large parts of Mataram.<br/><br/> In a 1743 treaty with the Dutch, Pakubuwono I ceded full sovereignty of Madura to the Dutch. The Dutch continued Madura's administrative divisions of four states each with their own regent. The island was initially important as a source of colonial troops and in the second half of the nineteenth century it became the main source of salt for Dutch-controlled territories in the archipelago.
Charles-François Gounod was a French composer, best known for his 'Ave Maria', based on a work by Bach, as well as his opera 'Faust'.
Yashima Gakutei was a Japanese artist and poet who was a pupil of both Totoya Hokkei and Hokusai. Gakutei is best known for his <i>kyoka</i> poetry and <i>surimono</i> woodblock works.
The Aceh War, also known as the Dutch War or the Infidel War (1873–1914), was an armed military conflict between the Sultanate of Aceh and the Netherlands which was triggered by discussions between representatives of Aceh and the United Kingdom in Singapore during early 1873.<br/><br/> The war was part of a series of conflicts in the late 19th century that consolidated Dutch rule over modern-day Indonesia.
Giuseppe Garibaldi (4 July 1807 in Nice – 2 June 1882 on Caprera) was an Italian general, politician and nationalist who played a large role in the history of Italy.<br/><br/> He is considered, with Camillo Cavour, Victor Emmanuel II and Giuseppe Mazzini, as one of Italy's 'fathers of the nation'.
Sei Shonagon (c. 966-1017) was a Japanese author and a court lady who served the Empress Teishi (Empress Sadako) around the year 1000 during the middle Heian period, and is best known as the author of 'The Pillow Book' (<i>Makura no Sosh</i>).<br/><br/> She achieved fame through her work 'The Pillow Book', a collection of lists, gossip, poetry, observations, complaints and anything else she found of interest during her years in the court. Her writing depicts the court of the young Empress as full of an elegant and merry atmosphere.
In 1624, Sultan Agung of Mataram conquered Madura and the island's government was brought under the Cakraningrats, a single princely line. The Cakrangingrat family opposed Central Javanese rule and often conquered large parts of Mataram.<br/><br/> In a 1743 treaty with the Dutch, Pakubuwono I ceded full sovereignty of Madura to the Dutch. The Dutch continued Madura's administrative divisions of four states each with their own regent. The island was initially important as a source of colonial troops and in the second half of the nineteenth century it became the main source of salt for Dutch-controlled territories in the archipelago.
Franz Liszt (born Franz Joseph Liszt), Hungarian: Liszt Ferencz, in modern usage Liszt Ferenc (October 22, 1811 – July 31, 1886) was a prolific 19th-century Hungarian composer, virtuoso pianist, conductor, music teacher, arranger, organist, philanthropist, author, nationalist and a Franciscan tertiary.
Jules Gabriel Verne (8 February 1828 – 24 March 1905) was a French novelist, poet, and playwright best known for his adventure novels and his profound influence on the literary genre of science fiction.<br/><br/> Verne was born to bourgeois parents in the seaport of Nantes, where he was trained to follow in his father's footsteps as a lawyer, but quit the profession early in life to write for magazines and the stage. His collaboration with the publisher Pierre-Jules Hetzel led to the creation of the Voyages Extraordinaires, a widely popular series of scrupulously researched adventure novels including Journey to the Center of the Earth, Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, and Around the World in Eighty Days.
Samurai is the term for the military nobility of pre-industrial Japan. By the end of the 12th century, samurai became almost entirely synonymous with bushi, and the word was closely associated with the middle and upper echelons of the warrior class.<br/><br/> The samurai followed a set of rules that came to be known as Bushidō. While they numbered less than ten percent of Japan's population, samurai teachings can still be found today in both everyday life and in martial arts such as Kendō, meaning the way of the sword.
The renowned female samurai, Tomoe-gozen in the 11th Century. Her husband or love was the Genji General Kiso Yoshinaka.<br/><br/> According to the 'The Tale of Heike', Tomoe was especially beautiful, with white skin, long hair, and charming features. She was also a remarkably strong archer, and as a swords-woman she was a warrior worth a thousand, ready to confront a demon or a god, mounted or on foot.<br/><br/> She handled unbroken horses with superb skill; she rode unscathed down perilous descents. Whenever a battle was imminent, Yoshinaka sent her out as his first captain, equipped with strong armor, an oversized sword, and a mighty bow, and she performed more deeds of valor than any of his other warriors.
Heungseon Daewongun (흥선대원군, 1820–1898) or The Daewongun (대원군), Guktaegong (국태공, ‘The Great Archduke’), also known to period western diplomats as Prince Gung, was the title of Li Ha-eung, regent of Joseon during the minority of King Gojong in the 1860s and until his death a key political figure of late Joseon Korea.<br/><br/> Daewongun literally translates as 'prince of the great court', a title customarily granted to the father of the reigning monarch when that father did not reign himself (usually because his son had been adopted as heir of a relative who did reign). While there had been three other Daewongun during the Joseon Dynasty, so dominant a place did Yi Ha-eung have in the history of the late Joseon dynasty that the term Daewongun usually refers specifically to him.<br/><br/> The Daewongun is remembered for the wide-ranging reforms he attempted during his regency, as well as for his vigorous enforcement of the seclusion policy, persecution of Christians, and the killing or driving off of foreigners who landed on Korean soil.
Factory was the English term for the trading posts system originally established by Europeans in foreign territories, first within different states of medieval Europe, and later in their colonial possessions.<br/><br/> Factories served simultaneously as market, warehouse, customs, defense and support to the navigation or exploration, headquarters or de facto government of local communities, with the head of the factory being called a factor.
Shivaji Bhosale (19 February 1630 – 3 April 1680), was the founder of the Maratha Empire, which lasted until 1820, and at its peak covered much of the Indian subcontinent. An aristocrat of the Bhosle Maratha clan, Shivaji led a resistance against the Adilshahi sultanate of Bijapur and the Mughal Empire and established Hindavi Swarajya ('self-rule of Hindu people'). He created an independent Maratha kingdom with Raigad as its capital, and was crowned Chhatrapati ('paramount sovereign') of the Marathas in 1674.<br/><br/> Shivaji established a competent and progressive civil rule with the help of a disciplined military and well-structured administrative organisations. He innovated military tactics, pioneering guerrilla warfare methods which employed strategic factors like geography, speed, and surprise and focused pinpoint attacks to defeat his larger and more powerful enemies.<br/><br/> From a small contingent of 2,000 soldiers inherited from his father, Shivaji created a force of 100,000 soldiers; he built and restored strategically located forts both inland and along the coast to safeguard his territory. He revived ancient Hindu political traditions and court conventions, and promoted the usage of Marathi and Sanskrit, rather than Persian, in court and administration.
Jodhpur (Rajasthani: जोधपुर), (Urdu: جودهپُور ‎) is the 2nd largest city in the Indian state of Rajasthan. It is located 335 kilometres (208 mi) west of the state capital, Jaipur and 200 kilometres (124 mi) from the city of Ajmer. It was formerly the seat of a princely state of the same name, the capital of the kingdom known as Marwar.<br/><br/> The city is known as the 'Blue City' due to the vivid blue-painted houses around the Mehrangarh Fort. The old city circles the fort and is bounded by a wall with several gates. However, the city has expanded greatly outside the wall over the past several decades. Jodhpur lies near the geographic centre of Rajasthan state, which makes it a convenient base for travel in the region.
Karl Heinrich Marx (Berlin, 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. His ideas played a significant role in the establishment of the social sciences and the development of the socialist movement. He is also considered one of the greatest economists in history. He published numerous books during his lifetime, the most notable being 'The Communist Manifesto' (1848) and Capital (1867 –1894). He worked closely with his friend and fellow revolutionary socialist, Friedrich Engels.<br/><br/> Friedrich Engels (28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895) was a German social scientist, author, political theorist, philosopher, and father of Marxist theory, alongside Karl Marx. In 1845 he published The Condition of the Working Class in England, based on personal observations and research. In 1848 he co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Karl Marx, and later he supported Marx financially to do research and write Das Kapital. After Marx's death Engels edited the second and third volumes.<br/><br/> Shanghai began life as a fishing village, and later as a port receiving goods carried down the Yangzi River. From 1842 onwards, in the aftermath of the first Opium War, the British opened a ‘concession’ in Shanghai where drug dealers and other traders could operate undisturbed. French, Italians, Germans, Americans and Japanese all followed. By the 1920s and 1930s, Shanghai was a boom town and an international byword for dissipation. When the Communists won power in 1949, they transformed Shanghai into a model of the Revolution.
Karl Heinrich Marx (Berlin, 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. His ideas played a significant role in the establishment of the social sciences and the development of the socialist movement. He is also considered one of the greatest economists in history. He published numerous books during his lifetime, the most notable being 'The Communist Manifesto' (1848) and Capital (1867 –1894). He worked closely with his friend and fellow revolutionary socialist, Friedrich Engels.<br/><br/> Friedrich Engels (28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895) was a German social scientist, author, political theorist, philosopher, and father of Marxist theory, alongside Karl Marx. In 1845 he published The Condition of the Working Class in England, based on personal observations and research. In 1848 he co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Karl Marx, and later he supported Marx financially to do research and write Das Kapital. After Marx's death Engels edited the second and third volumes.<br/><br/> Shanghai began life as a fishing village, and later as a port receiving goods carried down the Yangzi River. From 1842 onwards, in the aftermath of the first Opium War, the British opened a ‘concession’ in Shanghai where drug dealers and other traders could operate undisturbed. French, Italians, Germans, Americans and Japanese all followed. By the 1920s and 1930s, Shanghai was a boom town and an international byword for dissipation. When the Communists won power in 1949, they transformed Shanghai into a model of the Revolution.
Honmyō-ji (本妙寺?) is a Buddhist temple of the Nichiren sect, Rokujōmon-ryū, (六条門流) in Nishi-ku, Kumamoto, Japan. It is the most high ranking temple of the sect in Kyushu. In Honmyō-ji is the grave of Katō Kiyomasa, (1562–1611), a Japanese daimyo, builder of Kumamoto Castle and a dedicated buddhist of Nichiren Buddhism.<br/><br/> Kitao Shigemasa (北尾 重政, 1739 - March 8, 1820) was a Japanese ukiyo-e artist from Edo. He was one of the leading printmakers of his day, but his works have been slightly obscure. He is noted for paintings of geisha. He was taught by Shigenaga and has been referred to as 'a chameleon' who adopted to changing styles. He was less active after the rise of Torii Kiyonaga and produced relatively few works considering the length of his career. He is also noted for his haikai (poetry) and shodō (Japanese calligraphy). In his later years he used the studio name Kosuisai.
Laozi (Lao Tzu, c. 6th century BCE) was a mystic philosopher of ancient China. His association with the Daodejing (Tao Te Ching) has led him to be traditionally considered the founder of Taoism (also spelled 'Daoism'). He is also revered as a deity in most religious forms of the Taoist religion, which often refers to Laozi as Taishang Laojun, or 'One of the Three Pure Ones'. Laozi translated literally from Chinese means 'old master' or 'old one', and is generally considered honorific.
Keisai Eisen (渓斎 英泉, 1790 – 1848) was a Japanese ukiyo-e artist who specialised in bijinga (pictures of beautiful women). His best works, including his ōkubi-e ('large head pictures'), are considered to be masterpieces of the 'decadent' Bunsei Era (1818–1830). He was also known as Ikeda Eisen, and wrote under the name of Ippitsuan.
British territorial acquisitions in the countries that now comprise Malaysia and Singapore date back to 1786, when the Sultan of Kedah, menaced both by occasional Burmese and Siamese attacks, ceded Penang Island to the British East India Company in exchange for protection against his aggressive northern neighbours.<br/><br/> On August 11, 1786, Captain – later Sir – Francis Light took possession of the island and renamed it Prince of Wales Island. In 1798 a strip of coastal territory opposite Penang was similarly ceded to the British, and renamed Province Wellesley.<br/><br/> In 1946 Singapore became a separate Crown Colony, while Penang and Malacca both joined the Malayan Union, which became the Federation of Malaysia in 1963. Two years later, in August 1965, Singapore left the federation and became an independent state in its own right.
The Gita Govinda is a work composed by the 12th-century poet, Jayadeva, who was born in Kenduli Sasan near Puri in Orissa. It describes the relationship between Krishna and the gopis (female cow herders) of Vrindavana, and in particular one gopi named Radha. This work has been of great importance in the development of the bhakti traditions of Hinduism.<br/><br/> The Gita Govinda is organized into twelve chapters. Each chapter is further sub-divided into twenty four divisions called Prabandhas. The prabandhas contain couplets grouped into eights, called Ashtapadis. The text also elaborates the eight moods of Heroine, the Ashta Nayika in its verses, which over the years has been an inspiration for many compositions and choreographic works in Indian classical dance.
Kālī is the Hindu goddess associated with eternal energy. 'She who destroys'. The name Kali comes from kāla, which means black, time, death, lord of death, Shiva. Kali means 'the black one'. Since Shiva is called Kāla - the eternal time, Kālī, his consort, also means 'Time' or 'Death' (as in time has come). Hence, Kali is considered the goddess of time and change.<br/><br/> Although sometimes presented as dark and violent, her earliest incarnation as a figure of annihilation still has some influence. Various Shakta Hindu cosmologies, as well as Shakta Tantric beliefs, worship her as the ultimate reality or Brahman. She is also revered as Bhavatarini (literally 'redeemer of the universe').<br/><br/> Kali is represented as the consort of Lord Shiva, on whose body she is often seen standing. She is associated with many other Hindu goddesses like Durga, Bhadrakali, Sati, Rudrani, Parvati and Chamunda. She is the foremost among the Dasa Mahavidyas, ten fierce Tantric goddesses.
A Deputy Governor of Kamboja as depicted in Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and Cochin-China, exhibiting a view of the actual State of these Kingdoms by John Crawfurd (1783-1868), London, 1828.<br/><br/> During the late 18th and early 19th century eastern Cambodia was subject to Vietnamese suzerainty. Vietnamese emperor, Minh Mang attempted unsuccessfully to force the Cambodians to adopt Vietnamese customs, mores and dress.
Ukiyo-e, literally 'pictures of the floating world', are a genre of Japanese woodblock prints (or woodcuts) and paintings produced between the 17th and the 20th centuries, featuring motifs of landscapes, tales from history, the theatre, and pleasure quarters. It is the main artistic genre of woodblock printing in Japan.<br/><br/> Usually the word ukiyo is literally translated as 'floating world' in English, referring to a conception of an evanescent world, impermanent, fleeting beauty and a realm of entertainments (kabuki, courtesans, geisha) divorced from the responsibilities of the mundane, everyday world; 'pictures of the floating world', i.e. ukiyo-e, are considered a genre unto themselves.
Minh Mạng (1791–1841; born Nguyễn Phúc Đảm, also known as Nguyễn Phúc Kiểu) was the second emperor of the Nguyễn Dynasty of Vietnam, reigning from 14 February 1820 until 20 January 1841. He was a younger son of Emperor Gia Long, whose eldest son, Crown Prince Canh, had died in 1801. He was well known for his opposition to French involvement in Vietnam and his rigid Confucian orthodoxy.<br/><br/> As Gia Long aged, he took on a more isolationist foreign policy, and as a result favored Minh Mang especially for his outlook. Minh Mang was a classicist who was regarded as one of Vietnam's most scholarly monarchs. He was known as a poet and was regarded as an emperor who cared sincerely about his country and paid great attention to its rule.<br/><br/> The dragon symbolises power in both Vietnamese and Chinese. The stylised dragon map is written in Han Tu or Chinese characters.
The Javanese script, natively known as Aksara Jawa (lit. 'the script of Java'), Hanacaraka, or Carakan, is a pre-colonial script used to write Javanese and several other native languages of Indonesia. It is closely related to the Balinese script.<br/><br/> In everyday use, Javanese script has been almost entirely supplanted by Latin script which was introduced by the Dutch during the 19th century.
Samurai is the term for the military nobility of pre-industrial Japan. By the end of the 12th century, samurai became almost entirely synonymous with bushi, and the word was closely associated with the middle and upper echelons of the warrior class.<br/><br/> The samurai followed a set of rules that came to be known as Bushidō. While they numbered less than ten percent of Japan's population, samurai teachings can still be found today in both everyday life and in martial arts such as Kendō, meaning the way of the sword.
The Jiaqing Emperor (13 November 1760 – 2 September 1820) was the sixth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, and the fifth Qing emperor to rule over China proper, from 1796 to 1820. Son of the famous Qianlong Emperor, he is remembered for his prosecution of Heshen, the corrupt favourite of Qianlong, as well as for attempts to restore the state and curb the smuggling of opium inside China.
A member of the Thirty-six Medieval Poetry Immortals, Izumi Shikibu served at the court of Empress Shoshi (988–1074).<br/><br/> She is best known for the Izumi Shikibu Collection (和泉式部集 Izumi Shikibu-shū) and the Imperial anthologies. Her life of love and passion earned her the nickname of 'The Floating Lady' from Michinaga. Her poetry is characterized by passion and sentimental appeal. Her style was the direct opposite of that of Akazome Emon, even though both served in the same court and were close friends.<br/><br/> At the court she also nursed a growing rivalry with Murasaki Shikibu, who had a similar poetic style, though this rivalry pales in comparison with Murasaki Shikibu's spirited competition with Sei Shōnagon. Izumi Shikibu's emotional poetry won her the praise of many at the court, including Fujiwara no Kinto.
Mamluk (Arabic: مملوك mamluk (singular), مماليك mamālīk (plural)), 'owned'; also transliterated Mamlouk, Turkish: Memlük, also called Kölemen; , Mamluq, Mamluke, Mameluk, Mameluke, Mamaluke or Marmeluke.<br/><br/> A soldier of slave origin, predominantly Cuman or Kipchak and later Circassian and Georgian. The 'Mamluk phenomenon', as David Ayalon dubbed the creation of the specific warrior class, was of great political importance and was extraordinarily long-lived, lasting from the 9th to the 19th century CE. Over time, Mamluks became a powerful military caste in various Muslim societies. Particularly in Egypt, but also in the Levant, Iraq, and India, Mamluks held political and military power.<br/><br/> In some cases, they attained the rank of sultan, while in others they held regional power as amirs or beys. Most notably, Mamluk factions seized the sultanate for themselves in Egypt and Syria in a period known as the Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517). The Mamluk Sultanate famously beat back the Mongols at the Battle of Ayn Jalut and fought the Crusaders effectively driving them out from the Levant by 1291 and officially in 1302 ending the era of the Crusades.<br/><br/> They were predominantly drawn from Turkic tribes, the Cumans and Kipchaks, depending on the period and region in question. While Mamluks were purchased, their status was above ordinary slaves, who were not allowed to carry weapons or perform certain tasks. In places such as Egypt from the Ayyubid dynasty to the time of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, mamluks were considered to be 'true lords', with social status above freeborn Muslims.
A member of the Thirty-six Medieval Poetry Immortals, Izumi Shikibu served at the court of Empress Shoshi (988–1074).<br/><br/> She is best known for the Izumi Shikibu Collection (和泉式部集 Izumi Shikibu-shū) and the Imperial anthologies. Her life of love and passion earned her the nickname of 'The Floating Lady' from Michinaga. Her poetry is characterized by passion and sentimental appeal. Her style was the direct opposite of that of Akazome Emon, even though both served in the same court and were close friends.<br/><br/> At the court she also nursed a growing rivalry with Murasaki Shikibu, who had a similar poetic style, though this rivalry pales in comparison with Murasaki Shikibu's spirited competition with Sei Shōnagon. Izumi Shikibu's emotional poetry won her the praise of many at the court, including Fujiwara no Kinto.
Utagawa Kunisada (1786 – January 12, 1865), also known as Utagawa Toyokuni III) was the most popular, prolific and financially successful designer of ukiyo-e woodblock prints in 19th-century Japan. In his own time, his reputation far exceeded that of his contemporaries, Hokusai, Hiroshige and Kuniyoshi.
Keisai Eisen (渓斎 英泉, 1790–1848) was a Japanese ukiyo-e artist who specialised in bijinga (pictures of beautiful women). His best works, including his ōkubi-e ('large head pictures'), are considered to be masterpieces of the 'decadent' Bunsei Era (1818–1830). He was also known as Ikeda Eisen, and wrote under the name of Ippitsuan.
Samurai is the term for the military nobility of pre-industrial Japan. By the end of the 12th century, samurai became almost entirely synonymous with bushi, and the word was closely associated with the middle and upper echelons of the warrior class.<br/><br/> The samurai followed a set of rules that came to be known as Bushidō. While they numbered less than ten percent of Japan's population, samurai teachings can still be found today in both everyday life and in martial arts such as Kendō, meaning the way of the sword.
Oiran (花魁) were the courtesans of Edo period Japan. The oiran were considered a type of yūjo (遊女) 'woman of pleasure' or prostitute. However, they were distinguished from the yūjo in that they were entertainers, and many became celebrities of their times outside the pleasure districts. Their art and fashions often set trends among the wealthy and, because of this, cultural aspects of oiran traditions continue to be preserved to this day.<br/><br/> The oiran arose in the Edo period (1600–1868). At this time, laws were passed restricting brothels to walled districts set some distance from the city center. In the major cities these were the Shimabara in Kyoto, the Shinmachi in Osaka, and the Yoshiwara in Edo (present-day Tokyo).<br/><br/> These rapidly grew into large, self-contained 'pleasure quarters' offering all manner of entertainments. Within, a courtesan’s birth rank held no distinction, which was fortunate considering many of the courtesans originated as the daughters of impoverished families who were sold into this lifestyle as indentured servants. Instead, they were categorized based on their beauty, character, education, and artistic ability.<br/><br/> Among the oiran, the tayū (太夫) was considered the highest rank of courtesan and were considered suitable for the daimyo or feudal lords. In the mid-1700s courtesan rankings began to disappear and courtesans of all classes were collectively known simply as 'oiran'.<br/><br/> The word oiran comes from the Japanese phrase oira no tokoro no nēsan (おいらの所の姉さ) which translates as 'my elder sister'. When written in Japanese, it consists of two kanji, 花 meaning 'flower', and 魁 meaning 'leader' or 'first', hence 'Leading Flower' or 'First Flower'.
The Benin Empire (1440–1897) was a pre-colonial African state in what is now modern Nigeria. It is not to be confused with the modern-day country called Benin (and formerly called Dahomey).
The Benin Empire (1440–1897) was a pre-colonial African state in what is now modern Nigeria. It is not to be confused with the modern-day country called Benin (and formerly called Dahomey).
Shiva (Sanskrit: शिव Śiva, meaning 'auspicious one' ) is a major Hindu deity, and is the destroyer god or transformer among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine.<br/><br/> Shiva is depicted three-eyed, the waters of the River Ganges poring from his top-knot.<br/><br/> Parvati (Sanskrit: पार्वती (IAST: Pārvatī)) is a Hindu goddess. Parvati is Shakti herself, considered as wife of Shiva, albeit the gentle aspect of Mahadevi, the Supreme Goddess. Parvati is sometimes considered as the supreme Divine Mother and all other goddesses are referred to as her incarnations or manifestations.<br/><br/> Mewar (मेवाड़ مئور also called the Udaipur Kingdom) is a region of south-central Rajasthan state in western India. It includes the present-day districts of Pratapgarh, Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Rajsamand, Udaipur, Dungarpur, Banswara and some of the part of Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.<br/><br/> The region was for centuries a Rajput kingdom that later became a princely state under the British. It was ruled by the Chattari rajputs of Mori Guhilot Parihar and Sisodia dynasties for over 1,400 years.
Kubo Shunman (1757-1820) was a Japanese artist and writer. Shunman was born with the given name Kubo / Kubota Yasubei and was orphaned at a young age. He studied under the painter Katori Nahiko and the ukiyo-e artist Kitao Shigemasa, and took the art name Shunman upon finishing his studies. Other names he used were Shosado and Sashodo, hinting at his left-handed nature.<br/><br/> His earliest works date back to 1774, and he would go on to produce ukiyo-e prints, book illustrations, paintings, illustrated novels and poetry. He became the most prolific artist in the Kitao school, with more than 70 paintings to his name surviving.<br/><br/> Shunman was a member of various poets' clubs as well, notably the Rokujuen and Bakuro-ren clubs, the latter of which he became head. He eventually stopped designing commercial prints in 1790 to focus primarily on commissioned prints and his poetry.
A yobidashi is a Yoshiwara top-ranked oiran or prostitute. Tortoise shell is very lightweight, but she is wearing so many combs and hairpins in her hair that it makes them look heavy. Her kimono also has a foreign flavor with its stripes and calico strips.<br/><br/> Utagawa Kunisada (1786 – January 12, 1865), also known as Utagawa Toyokuni III) was the most popular, prolific and financially successful designer of ukiyo-e woodblock prints in 19th-century Japan. In his own time, his reputation far exceeded that of his contemporaries, Hokusai, Hiroshige and Kuniyoshi.
Kitagawa Utamaro (ca. 1753 - October 31, 1806) was a Japanese printmaker and painter, who is considered one of the greatest artists of woodblock prints (ukiyo-e). He is known especially for his masterfully composed studies of women, known as bijinga. He also produced nature studies, particularly illustrated books of insects.<br/><br/> After Utamaro's death, his pupil, Koikawa Shunchō, continued to produce prints in the style of his mentor and took over the gō, Utamaro, until 1820. These prints, produced during that fourteen-year-period as if Utamaro was the artist, now are referred to as the work of Utamaro II. After 1820 Koikawa Shunchō changed his gō to Kitagawa Tetsugorō, producing his subsequent work under that name.
Flying dragon. Phi long (coin) of Minh Mạng, second emperor of the Nguyễn Dynasty of Vietnam, minted 1833.<br/><br/> Minh Mạng (1791–1841) was the second emperor of the Nguyen Dynasty of Vietnam, reigning from 14 February 1820 until 20 January 1841. He was a younger son of Emperor Gia Long, whose eldest son, Crown Prince Canh, had died in 1801. He was well known for his opposition to French involvement in Vietnam and his rigid Confucian orthodoxy. As Gia Long aged, he took on a more isolationist foreign policy, and as a result favored Minh Mang especially for his outlook.<br/><br/> Minh Mang was a classicist who was regarded as one of Vietnam's most scholarly monarchs. He was known as a poet and was regarded as an emperor who cared sincerely about his country and paid great attention to its rule, to the extent of micromanaging certain policies. He pursued a sceptical policy to Christian missionaries, often trying to inhibit their activities by administrative means, and later by explicitly banning proselytisation.
Utagawa Kunisada (1786 – January 12, 1865) was the most popular, prolific and financially successful designer of ukiyo-e woodblock prints in 19th-century Japan. In his own time, his reputation far exceeded that of his contemporaries, Hokusai, Hiroshige and Kuniyoshi. A speciality was bijin, or woodblock prints of beautiful women, as here.
Emperor Gia Long (8 February 1762 – 3 February 1820), born Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (often referred to simply as Nguyễn Ánh), was an emperor of Vietnam. Unifying what is now modern Vietnam in 1802, he founded the Nguyễn Dynasty, the last of the Vietnamese dynasties. He reigned from 1802 - 1820.<br/><br/> Gia Long's rule was noted for its Confucian orthodoxy. He repealed Tay Son reforms and reinstated the classical Confucian education and civil service system. He moved the capital from Hanoi south to Huế as the country's populace had also shifted south over the preceding centuries, and built up fortresses and a palace in his new capital.<br/><br/> Using French expertise, he modernized Vietnam's defensive capabilities. In deference to the assistance of his French friends, he tolerated the activities of Roman Catholic missionaries, something that became increasingly restricted under his successors. Under his rule, Vietnam strengthened its military dominance in Indochina, expelling Siamese forces from Cambodia and turning it into a vassal state.
Heungseon Daewongun (흥선대원군, 1820–1898) or The Daewongun (대원군), Guktaegong (국태공, ‘The Great Archduke’), also known to period western diplomats as Prince Gung, was the title of Li Ha-eung, regent of Joseon during the minority of King Gojong in the 1860s and until his death a key political figure of late Joseon Korea.<br/><br/> Daewongun literally translates as 'prince of the great court', a title customarily granted to the father of the reigning monarch when that father did not reign himself (usually because his son had been adopted as heir of a relative who did reign). While there had been three other Daewongun during the Joseon Dynasty, so dominant a place did Yi Ha-eung have in the history of the late Joseon dynasty that the term Daewongun usually refers specifically to him.<br/><br/> The Daewongun is remembered for the wide-ranging reforms he attempted during his regency, as well as for his vigorous enforcement of the seclusion policy, persecution of Christians, and the killing or driving off of foreigners who landed on Korean soil.