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Chester Alan Arthur (October 5, 1829 – November 18, 1886) was an American attorney and politician who served as the 21st President of the United States (1881–85); he succeeded James A. Garfield upon the latter's assassination.<br/><br/> At the outset, Arthur struggled to overcome a slightly negative reputation, which stemmed from his early career in politics as part of New York's Republican political machine. He succeeded by embracing the cause of civil service reform. His advocacy for, and subsequent enforcement of, the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act was the centerpiece of his administration.
Rutherford Birchard Hayes (October 4, 1822 – January 17, 1893) was the 19th President of the United States (1877–81).<br/><br/> As president, he oversaw the end of Reconstruction, began the efforts that led to civil service reform, and attempted to reconcile the divisions left over from the Civil War and Reconstruction.
Chester Alan Arthur (October 5, 1829 – November 18, 1886) was an American attorney and politician who served as the 21st President of the United States (1881–85); he succeeded James A. Garfield upon the latter's assassination.<br/><br/> At the outset, Arthur struggled to overcome a slightly negative reputation, which stemmed from his early career in politics as part of New York's Republican political machine. He succeeded by embracing the cause of civil service reform. His advocacy for, and subsequent enforcement of, the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act was the centerpiece of his administration.
James Abram Garfield (November 19, 1831 – September 19, 1881) was the 20th President of the United States, serving from March 4, 1881, until his assassination later that year.<br/><br/> Garfield had served nine terms in the House of Representatives, and had been elected to the Senate before his candidacy for the White House, though he declined the Senate seat once he was elected President. He is the only sitting House member to have been elected president.
Chester Alan Arthur (October 5, 1829 – November 18, 1886) was an American attorney and politician who served as the 21st President of the United States (1881–85); he succeeded James A. Garfield upon the latter's assassination.<br/><br/> At the outset, Arthur struggled to overcome a slightly negative reputation, which stemmed from his early career in politics as part of New York's Republican political machine. He succeeded by embracing the cause of civil service reform. His advocacy for, and subsequent enforcement of, the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act was the centerpiece of his administration.
Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, KG, PC, FRS, (21 December 1804 – 19 April 1881) was a British Conservative politician, writer and aristocrat who twice served as Prime Minister. He played a central role in the creation of the modern Conservative Party, defining its policies and its broad outreach.<br/><br/> Disraeli is remembered for his influential voice in world affairs, his political battles with the Liberal leader William Ewart Gladstone, and his one-nation conservatism or 'Tory democracy'. He made the Conservatives the party most identified with the glory and power of the British Empire. He remains, as of 2015, the only British Prime Minister of Jewish (Sephardic) birth.
Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, KG, PC, FRS, (21 December 1804 – 19 April 1881) was a British Conservative politician, writer and aristocrat who twice served as Prime Minister. He played a central role in the creation of the modern Conservative Party, defining its policies and its broad outreach.<br/><br/> Disraeli is remembered for his influential voice in world affairs, his political battles with the Liberal leader William Ewart Gladstone, and his one-nation conservatism or 'Tory democracy'. He made the Conservatives the party most identified with the glory and power of the British Empire. He remains, as of 2015, the only British Prime Minister of Jewish (Sephardic) birth.
Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, KG, PC, FRS, (21 December 1804 – 19 April 1881) was a British Conservative politician, writer and aristocrat who twice served as Prime Minister. He played a central role in the creation of the modern Conservative Party, defining its policies and its broad outreach.<br/><br/> Disraeli is remembered for his influential voice in world affairs, his political battles with the Liberal leader William Ewart Gladstone, and his one-nation conservatism or 'Tory democracy'. He made the Conservatives the party most identified with the glory and power of the British Empire. He remains, as of 2015, the only British Prime Minister of Jewish (Sephardic) birth.
Anna Maria Elisabeth Lisinska Jerichau-Baumann (November 21, 1819 – July 11, 1881, Copenhagen) was a Polish-Danish painter. She was married to the sculptor Jens Adolf Jerichau.<br/><br/> Fellah (Arabic: fallah, plural Fellahin) is a peasant, farmer or agricultural labourer in the Middle East and North Africa. The word derives from the Arabic word for ploughman or tiller.
Rutherford Birchard Hayes (October 4, 1822 – January 17, 1893) was the 19th President of the United States (1877–81).<br/><br/> As president, he oversaw the end of Reconstruction, began the efforts that led to civil service reform, and attempted to reconcile the divisions left over from the Civil War and Reconstruction.
A Tower of Silence or Dakhma is a circular, raised structure used by Zoroastrians for exposure of the dead. There is no standard technical name for such a construction. The common <i>dakhma</i> or <i>dokhma</i> (from Middle Persian <i>dakhmag</i>) originally denoted any place for the dead. Similarly, in the medieval texts of Zoroastrian tradition, the word astodan appears, but today denotes an ossuary.<br/><br/> In the Iranian provinces of Yazd and Kerman, the technical term is <i>deme</i> or <i>dema</i>. In India, the term <i>doongerwadi</i> came into use after a tower was constructed on a hill of that name. The word <i>dagdah</i> appears in the texts of both India and Iran but, in 20th century India, signified the lowest grade of temple fire (cf. Fire temple). The term 'Tower of Silence' is a neologism attributed to one Robert Murphy, who, in 1832, was a translator of the British colonial government in India.
Odoric of Pordenone, OFM (1286–1331), also known as Odorico Mattiussi or Mattiuzzi, was an Italian late-medieval Franciscan friar and missionary explorer. His account of his visit to China was an important source for the account of John Mandeville.<br/><br/> Many of the incredible reports in Mandeville have proven to be garbled versions of Odoric's eyewitness descriptions.<br/><br/> Seventy-three manuscripts of Odoric's narrative are known to exist in Latin, French and Italian: of these the most important, of about 1350, is in the Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris.
Charles Robert Darwin, FRS (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist and geologist, best known for his contributions to evolutionary theory. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors, and in a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding.<br/><br/> Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book 'On the Origin of Species', overcoming scientific rejection of earlier concepts of transmutation of species. By the 1870s the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact. However, many favoured competing explanations and it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution. In modified form, Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity of life.
A <i>Kappa</i> ('river-child'), alternatively called <i>kawataro</i> ('river-boy'), is a <i>yokai</i> (supernatural monster) found in Japanese folklore. The name is a combination of the word <i>kawa</i> (river) and <i>wappa</i>, an inflection of <i>warabe</i> (child). In Shintō they are considered to be one of many <i>suijin</i> ('water deities').<br/><br/> A hairy kappa is called a Hyōsube.There are more than eighty other names associated with the kappa in different regions. Along with the oni and the tengu, the kappa is among the best-known yokai in Japan.
Kung Hsiang-hsi (Chinese: 孔祥熙; pinyin: Kǒng Xiángxī; Wade–Giles: K'ung Hsiang-hsi; September 11, 1881 – August 16, 1967), often known as Dr. H. H. Kung, was a wealthy Chinese banker and politician of the mid 20th century. He was highly influential in determining the economic policies of the Kuomintang (Nationalist) government in the 1930s and 1940s. He was known as the richest man in China at that time.<br/><br/> Kung was an early supporter of Sun Yat-sen, and worked with Wang Jingwei before serving in the government of Chiang Kai-shek. Kung began his career in the government of the Republic of China as the Minister of Industry, holding this position from 1927-1928. Kung joined the central executive committee of the Kuomintang (KMT) in 1931. He served as Premier of the Republic of China from 1 January 1938 – 20 November 1939.<br/><br/> Kung then served as the Vice-Premier of the Executive Yuan, from 1935-1945. Dr. Kung served as China's Chief Delegate to the International Monetary & Financial Conference in 1944, where he signed the Bretton Woods Accord during the Bretton Woods Conference at the Mount Washington Hotel, New Hampshire, in the United States. This conference established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which today is part of the World Bank Group.<br/><br/> Kung first married Han Yu-mei in 1910, but she died in 1913. In 1914 Kung married his second wife, Soong Ai-ling, the eldest of the Soong sisters. This marriage made Kung the brother-in-law of Soong Mei-ling, the wife of Chiang Kai-shek.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–10 November 1938) was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey.<br/><br/> He is credited with being the founder of the modern Turkish state. Atatürk was a military officer during World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, he led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence.<br/><br/> Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His military campaigns gained Turkey independence. Atatürk then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, westernized and secular nation-state.<br/><br/> The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–10 November 1938) was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey.<br/><br/> He is credited with being the founder of the modern Turkish state. Atatürk was a military officer during World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, he led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence.<br/><br/> Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His military campaigns gained Turkey independence. Atatürk then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, westernized and secular nation-state.<br/><br/> The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.
Old Kandahar (locally known as Zorr Shaar) was originally laid out by Alexander the Great in 330 BCE under the name Alexandria Arachosia. It served as the local seat of power for many rulers in the last 2,000 years, becoming part of many empires, including the Mauryans (322 BCE – 185 BCE), Indo-Scythians (200 BCE – 400 CE), Sassanids, Arabs, Zunbils, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Timurids, Mughals, Safavids, and others.
French Indochina (French: Indochine française; Khmer: សហភាព​ឥណ្ឌូចិន, Vietnamese: Đông Dương thuộc Pháp, frequently abbreviated to Đông Pháp) was part of the French colonial empire in southeast Asia. A federation of the three Vietnamese regions, Tonkin (North), Annam (Central), and Cochinchina (South), as well as Cambodia, was formed in 1887.
This triptych illustrates an episode from the life of the popular hero Yoshitsune (1159-89), who was also known as Ushiwaka-maru (young ox).<br/><br/> On one of his nightly outings from the temple, 12-year-old Yoshitsune encountered Benkei on the Gojo Bridge in Kyoto. Benkei, a wild giant of a man, had been told by a sword-smith that he could forge a magic sword from the tips and cutting edges of a thousand blades. He obtained the swords by attacking samurai warriors crossing the Gojo Bridge.<br/><br/> One night he saw the young Ushiwaka approaching; he was carrying what would be his one-thousandth sword. Benkei attacked him without delay, but the youth was too quick for him and managed to defeat him. Benkei was so impressed that he promised to serve and follow Ushiwaka.
Lu Xun (or Lu Hsun), was the pen name of Zhou Shuren (Chou Shu-jen), September 25, 1881 – October 19, 1936. One of the major Chinese writers of the 20th century. Considered by many to be the founder of modern Chinese literature, he wrote in baihua (the vernacular) as well as classical Chinese. Lu Xun was a short story writer, editor, translator, critic, essayist and poet. In the 1930s he became the titular head of the Chinese League of the Left-Wing Writers in Shanghai.
Lu Xun (or Lu Hsun), was the pen name of Zhou Shuren (Chou Shu-jen), September 25, 1881 – October 19, 1936. One of the major Chinese writers of the 20th century. Considered by many to be the founder of modern Chinese literature, he wrote in baihua (the vernacular) as well as classical Chinese. Lu Xun was a short story writer, editor, translator, critic, essayist and poet. In the 1930s he became the titular head of the Chinese League of the Left-Wing Writers in Shanghai.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–10 November 1938) was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey.<br/><br/> He is credited with being the founder of the modern Turkish state. Atatürk was a military officer during World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, he led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence.<br/><br/> Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His military campaigns gained Turkey independence. Atatürk then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, westernized and secular nation-state.<br/><br/> The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.
Myrrh is the aromatic oleoresin of a number of small, thorny tree species of the genus Commiphora, which grow in dry, stony soil. An oleoresin is a natural blend of an essential oil and a resin. Myrrh resin is a natural gum.<br/><br/> When a tree wound penetrates through the bark and into the sapwood, the tree bleeds a resin. Myrrh gum, like frankincense, is such a resin. When people harvest myrrh, they wound the trees repeatedly to bleed them of the gum. Myrrh gum is waxy, and coagulates quickly. After the harvest, the gum becomes hard and glossy. The gum is yellowish, and may be either clear or opaque. It darkens deeply as it ages, and white streaks emerge.<br/><br/> Myrrh gum is commonly harvested from the species Commiphora myrrha, which is native to Yemen, Somalia, and eastern Ethiopia. The related Commiphora gileadensis, native to Eastern Mediterranean and particularly the Arabian Peninsula, is the biblically referenced Balm of Gilead. Several other species yield bdellium, and Indian myrrh.<br/><br/> The oleo gum resins of a number of other Commiphora and Balsamodendron species are also used as perfumes, medicines (such as aromatic wound dressings), and incense ingredients.
After the military defeat of France by Germany in 1870, Ferry formed the idea of acquiring a great colonial empire, principally for the sake of economic exploitation. In a speech before the Chamber of Deputies on 28 July 1885, he declared that 'the superior races have a right because they have a duty: it is their duty to civilize the inferior races'. Ferry directed the negotiations which led to the establishment of a French protectorate in Tunis (1881), prepared the treaty of 17 December 1885 for the occupation of Madagascar; directed the exploration of the Congo and of the Niger region; and above all, he organized the conquest of Annam and Tonkin in what became French Indochina.<br/><br/> The last endeavor led to a war with the Manchu Empire, whose Qing Dynasty had a claim of suzerainty over the two provinces. The excitement caused in Paris by the sudden retreat of the French troops from Lang Son during this war led to the Tonkin Affair: his violent denunciation by Clemenceau and other radicals, and his downfall on 30 March 1885. Although the treaty of peace with the Manchu Empire (9 June 1885), in which the Qing Dynasty ceded suzerainty of Annam and Tonkin to France, was the work of his ministry, he would never again serve as premier.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–10 November 1938) was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey.<br/><br/> He is credited with being the founder of the modern Turkish state. Atatürk was a military officer during World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, he led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence.<br/><br/> Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His military campaigns gained Turkey independence. Atatürk then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, westernized and secular nation-state.<br/><br/> The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.
Ismail Enver Pasha (Ottoman Turkish: اسماعیل انور پاشا; Turkish: İsmail Enver Paşa; 22 November 1881 – 4 August 1922), commonly known as Enver Pasha, was an Ottoman military officer and a leader of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. He was the main leader of the Ottoman Empire in both Balkan Wars and World War I. <br/><br/> After the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état, Enver Pasha became the Minister of War of the Ottoman Empire, forming one-third of the triumvirate known as the 'Three Pashas' (along with Talaat Pasha and Djemal Pasha) that held de facto rule over the Empire from 1913 until the end of World War I in 1918. As war minister and de facto Commander-in-Chief, Enver Pasha was considered to be the most powerful figure of the government of the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> He made the decision to enter the Empire into World War I, on the side of Germany. Along with Talaat and Djemal, he was one of the principal perpetrators of the Armenian Genocide.
Jean-Léon Gérôme (11 May 1824 – 10 January 1904) was a French painter and sculptor in the style now known as Academicism. The range of his oeuvre included historical painting, Greek mythology, Orientalism, portraits and other subjects, bringing the Academic painting tradition to an artistic climax.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–10 November 1938) was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey.<br/><br/> He is credited with being the founder of the modern Turkish state. Atatürk was a military officer during World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, he led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence.<br/><br/> Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His military campaigns gained Turkey independence. Atatürk then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, westernized and secular nation-state.<br/><br/> The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.
Kung Hsiang-hsi (Chinese: 孔祥熙; pinyin: Kǒng Xiángxī; Wade–Giles: K'ung Hsiang-hsi; September 11, 1881 – August 16, 1967), often known as Dr. H. H. Kung, was a wealthy Chinese banker and politician of the mid 20th century. He was highly influential in determining the economic policies of the Kuomintang (Nationalist) government in the 1930s and 1940s. He was known as the richest man in China at that time.<br/><br/> Kung was an early supporter of Sun Yat-sen, and worked with Wang Jingwei before serving in the government of Chiang Kai-shek. Kung began his career in the government of the Republic of China as the Minister of Industry, holding this position from 1927-1928. Kung joined the central executive committee of the Kuomintang (KMT) in 1931. He served as Premier of the Republic of China from 1 January 1938 – 20 November 1939.<br/><br/> Kung then served as the Vice-Premier of the Executive Yuan, from 1935-1945. Dr. Kung served as China's Chief Delegate to the International Monetary & Financial Conference in 1944, where he signed the Bretton Woods Accord during the Bretton Woods Conference at the Mount Washington Hotel, New Hampshire, in the United States. This conference established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which today is part of the World Bank Group.<br/><br/> Kung first married Han Yu-mei in 1910, but she died in 1913. In 1914 Kung married his second wife, Soong Ai-ling, the eldest of the Soong sisters. This marriage made Kung the brother-in-law of Soong Mei-ling, the wife of Chiang Kai-shek.
Lu Xun (or Lu Hsun), was the pen name of Zhou Shuren (Chou Shu-jen), September 25, 1881 – October 19, 1936. He was one of the major Chinese writers of the 20th century. Considered by many to be the founder of modern Chinese literature, he wrote in baihua (the vernacular) as well as classical Chinese. Lu Xun was a short story writer, editor, translator, critic, essayist and poet. In the 1930s he became the titular head of the Chinese League of the Left-Wing Writers in Shanghai.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–10 November 1938) was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey.<br/><br/> He is credited with being the founder of the modern Turkish state. Atatürk was a military officer during World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, he led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence.<br/><br/> Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His military campaigns gained Turkey independence. Atatürk then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, westernized and secular nation-state.<br/><br/> The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.
Ismail Enver Pasha (Ottoman Turkish: اسماعیل انور پاشا; Turkish: İsmail Enver Paşa; 22 November 1881 – 4 August 1922), commonly known as Enver Pasha, was an Ottoman military officer and a leader of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. He was the main leader of the Ottoman Empire in both Balkan Wars and World War I. <br/><br/> After the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état, Enver Pasha became the Minister of War of the Ottoman Empire, forming one-third of the triumvirate known as the 'Three Pashas' (along with Talaat Pasha and Djemal Pasha) that held de facto rule over the Empire from 1913 until the end of World War I in 1918. As war minister and de facto Commander-in-Chief, Enver Pasha was considered to be the most powerful figure of the government of the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> He made the decision to enter the Empire into World War I, on the side of Germany. Along with Talaat and Djemal, he was one of the principal perpetrators of the Armenian Genocide.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–10 November 1938) was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey.<br/><br/> He is credited with being the founder of the modern Turkish state. Atatürk was a military officer during World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, he led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence.<br/><br/> Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His military campaigns gained Turkey independence. Atatürk then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, westernized and secular nation-state.<br/><br/> The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–10 November 1938) was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey.<br/><br/> He is credited with being the founder of the modern Turkish state. Atatürk was a military officer during World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, he led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence.<br/><br/> Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His military campaigns gained Turkey independence. Atatürk then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, westernized and secular nation-state.<br/><br/> The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.
Ismail Enver Pasha (Ottoman Turkish: اسماعیل انور پاشا; Turkish: İsmail Enver Paşa; 22 November 1881 – 4 August 1922), commonly known as Enver Pasha, was an Ottoman military officer and a leader of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. He was the main leader of the Ottoman Empire in both Balkan Wars and World War I. <br/><br/> After the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état, Enver Pasha became the Minister of War of the Ottoman Empire, forming one-third of the triumvirate known as the 'Three Pashas' (along with Talaat Pasha and Djemal Pasha) that held de facto rule over the Empire from 1913 until the end of World War I in 1918. As war minister and de facto Commander-in-Chief, Enver Pasha was considered to be the most powerful figure of the government of the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> He made the decision to enter the Empire into World War I, on the side of Germany. Along with Talaat and Djemal, he was one of the principal perpetrators of the Armenian Genocide.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–10 November 1938) was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey.<br/><br/> He is credited with being the founder of the modern Turkish state. Atatürk was a military officer during World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, he led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence.<br/><br/> Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His military campaigns gained Turkey independence. Atatürk then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, westernized and secular nation-state.<br/><br/> The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–10 November 1938) was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey.<br/><br/> He is credited with being the founder of the modern Turkish state. Atatürk was a military officer during World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, he led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence.<br/><br/> Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His military campaigns gained Turkey independence. Atatürk then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, westernized and secular nation-state.<br/><br/> The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.
Ismail Enver Pasha (Ottoman Turkish: اسماعیل انور پاشا; Turkish: İsmail Enver Paşa; 22 November 1881 – 4 August 1922), commonly known as Enver Pasha, was an Ottoman military officer and a leader of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. He was the main leader of the Ottoman Empire in both Balkan Wars and World War I. <br/><br/> After the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état, Enver Pasha became the Minister of War of the Ottoman Empire, forming one-third of the triumvirate known as the 'Three Pashas' (along with Talaat Pasha and Djemal Pasha) that held de facto rule over the Empire from 1913 until the end of World War I in 1918. As war minister and de facto Commander-in-Chief, Enver Pasha was considered to be the most powerful figure of the government of the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> He made the decision to enter the Empire into World War I, on the side of Germany. Along with Talaat and Djemal, he was one of the principal perpetrators of the Armenian Genocide.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–10 November 1938) was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey.<br/><br/> He is credited with being the founder of the modern Turkish state. Atatürk was a military officer during World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, he led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence.<br/><br/> Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His military campaigns gained Turkey independence. Atatürk then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, westernized and secular nation-state.<br/><br/> The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.
Phra Bat Somdet Phra Poramentharamaha Vajiravudh Phra Mongkut Klao Chao Yu Hua, or Phra Bat Somdet Phra Ramathibodi Si Sintharamaha Vajiravudh Phra Mongkut Klao Chao Yu Hua, or Rama VI (1 January 1881 – 25 November 1925) was the sixth monarch of Siam under the House of Chakri, ruling from 1910 until his death. Vajiravudh is known for his efforts to create and promote Siamese nationalism. His reign was characterized by Siam's movement further towards democracy and minimal participation in World War I.
Ismail Enver Pasha (Ottoman Turkish: اسماعیل انور پاشا; Turkish: İsmail Enver Paşa; 22 November 1881 – 4 August 1922), commonly known as Enver Pasha, was an Ottoman military officer and a leader of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. He was the main leader of the Ottoman Empire in both Balkan Wars and World War I. <br/><br/> After the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état, Enver Pasha became the Minister of War of the Ottoman Empire, forming one-third of the triumvirate known as the 'Three Pashas' (along with Talaat Pasha and Djemal Pasha) that held de facto rule over the Empire from 1913 until the end of World War I in 1918. As war minister and de facto Commander-in-Chief, Enver Pasha was considered to be the most powerful figure of the government of the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> He made the decision to enter the Empire into World War I, on the side of Germany. Along with Talaat and Djemal, he was one of the principal perpetrators of the Armenian Genocide.
Sir Ellice 'Victor' Sassoon, 3rd Baronet, GBE (20 December 1881 – 13 August 1961) was a businessman and hotelier from the Sassoon banking family. He succeeded to the Baronetcy on the death of his father Edward Elias Sassoon in 1924. Married late in life, he had no issue and the Baronetcy became extinct on his death.<br/><br/> Sassoon lived in Shanghai as a wealthy bon vivant who worked tirelessly to protect Western interests in the Orient and helped European Jews survive in the Shanghai Ghetto. Sir Victor walked with the aid of two sticks as the result of injuries in World War I in which he served in the Royal Flying Corps. He founded the Cathay Hotel (now the Peace Hotel) but left under increasing Japanese pressure in 1941.<br/><br/> Victor Sassoon was an avid photographer and held extravagant parties at his hotel. He sold his business interests in India and Shanghai in 1948 and transferred the proceeds to the Bahamas. There in 1952 he set up a new enterprise, the E.D. Sassoon Banking Company.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–10 November 1938) was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey.<br/><br/> He is credited with being the founder of the modern Turkish state. Atatürk was a military officer during World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, he led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence.<br/><br/> Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His military campaigns gained Turkey independence. Atatürk then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, westernized and secular nation-state.<br/><br/> The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.
Ismail Enver Pasha (Ottoman Turkish: اسماعیل انور پاشا; Turkish: İsmail Enver Paşa; 22 November 1881 – 4 August 1922), commonly known as Enver Pasha, was an Ottoman military officer and a leader of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. He was the main leader of the Ottoman Empire in both Balkan Wars and World War I. <br/><br/> After the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état, Enver Pasha became the Minister of War of the Ottoman Empire, forming one-third of the triumvirate known as the 'Three Pashas' (along with Talaat Pasha and Djemal Pasha) that held de facto rule over the Empire from 1913 until the end of World War I in 1918. As war minister and de facto Commander-in-Chief, Enver Pasha was considered to be the most powerful figure of the government of the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> He made the decision to enter the Empire into World War I, on the side of Germany. Along with Talaat and Djemal, he was one of the principal perpetrators of the Armenian Genocide.
<i>Luncheon of the Boating Party</i> (1881, French: Le déjeuner des canotiers) is a painting by French impressionist Pierre-Auguste Renoir. It was purchased from the artist by the dealer-patron Paul Durand-Ruel and bought in 1923 (for $125,000) from his son by Duncan Phillips. It is now in The Phillips Collection in Washington, D.C. It shows a richness of form, a fluidity of brush stroke, and a flickering light.<br/><br/> The painting depicts a group of Renoir's friends relaxing on a balcony at the Maison Fournaise along the Seine river in Chatou in the western suburbs of Paris. The painter and art patron, Gustave Caillebotte, is seated in the lower right. Renoir's future wife, Aline Charigot, is in the foreground playing with a small dog. On the table is fruit and wine.<br/><br/> The diagonal of the railing serves to demarcate the two halves of the composition, one densely packed with figures, the other all but empty, save for the two figures of the proprietor's daughter Louise-Alphonsine Fournaise and her brother, Alphonse Fournaise, Jr, which are made prominent by this contrast. In this painting Renoir has captured a great deal of light. The main focus of light is coming from the large opening in the balcony, beside the large singleted man in the hat. The singlets of both men in the foreground and the table-cloth all work together to reflect this light and send it through the whole composition.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–10 November 1938) was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey.<br/><br/> He is credited with being the founder of the modern Turkish state. Atatürk was a military officer during World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, he led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence.<br/><br/> Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His military campaigns gained Turkey independence. Atatürk then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, westernized and secular nation-state.<br/><br/> The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.
Lu Xun (or Lu Hsun), was the pen name of Zhou Shuren (Chou Shu-jen), September 25, 1881 – October 19, 1936. One of the major Chinese writers of the 20th century. Considered by many to be the founder of modern Chinese literature, he wrote in baihua (the vernacular) as well as classical Chinese. Lu Xun was a short story writer, editor, translator, critic, essayist and poet. In the 1930s he became the titular head of the Chinese League of the Left-Wing Writers in Shanghai.
Lu Xun (or Lu Hsun), was the pen name of Zhou Shuren (Chou Shu-jen), September 25, 1881 – October 19, 1936. One of the major Chinese writers of the 20th century. Considered by many to be the founder of modern Chinese literature, he wrote in baihua (the vernacular) as well as classical Chinese. Lu Xun was a short story writer, editor, translator, critic, essayist and poet. In the 1930s he became the titular head of the Chinese League of the Left-Wing Writers in Shanghai.
Lu Xun (or Lu Hsun), was the pen name of Zhou Shuren (Chou Shu-jen), September 25, 1881 – October 19, 1936. One of the major Chinese writers of the 20th century. Considered by many to be the founder of modern Chinese literature, he wrote in baihua (the vernacular) as well as classical Chinese. Lu Xun was a short story writer, editor, translator, critic, essayist and poet. In the 1930s he became the titular head of the Chinese League of the Left-Wing Writers in Shanghai.
Lu Xun (or Lu Hsun), was the pen name of Zhou Shuren (Chou Shu-jen), September 25, 1881 – October 19, 1936. One of the major Chinese writers of the 20th century. Considered by many to be the founder of modern Chinese literature, he wrote in baihua (the vernacular) as well as classical Chinese. Lu Xun was a short story writer, editor, translator, critic, essayist and poet. In the 1930s he became the titular head of the Chinese League of the Left-Wing Writers in Shanghai.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–10 November 1938) was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey.<br/><br/> He is credited with being the founder of the modern Turkish state. Atatürk was a military officer during World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, he led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence.<br/><br/> Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His military campaigns gained Turkey independence. Atatürk then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, westernized and secular nation-state.<br/><br/> The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.
Georges Barrière (28 March 1881 in Chablis, France – 1944 in Đồ Sơn, Vietnam) was a French painter. He went to Paris at the age of 19 to follow the courses of Léon Bonnat and Jules Adler at the Beaux-Arts in Paris. His paintings were shown at the Salon d'Automne in 1903, at the Société des Artistes Indépendants in 1906, and the Salon des Artistes Français in 1909.
The Shanghai Race Club was the original horse racing organization for Shanghai, China. When the first horse race meeting in Shanghai took place during 1848 the Shanghai Race Club was known as the Race Committee of the Shanghai Recreation Club. In 1855 it became a Club. In 1862 it detached itself from the Shanghai Recreation Club to become an independent body. The Shanghai Race Club closed down in 1941 and reformed in 2006.
The Aceh War, also known as the Dutch War or the Infidel War (1873–1914), was an armed military conflict between the Sultanate of Aceh and the Netherlands which was triggered by discussions between representatives of Aceh and the United Kingdom in Singapore during early 1873.<br/><br/> The war was part of a series of conflicts in the late 19th century that consolidated Dutch rule over modern-day Indonesia.
James Abram Garfield (November 19, 1831 – September 19, 1881) was the 20th President of the United States, serving from March 4, 1881, until his assassination later that year.<br/><br/> Garfield had served nine terms in the House of Representatives, and had been elected to the Senate before his candidacy for the White House, though he declined the Senate seat once he was elected President. He is the only sitting House member to have been elected president.
After the military defeat of France by Germany in 1870, Ferry formed the idea of acquiring a great colonial empire, principally for the sake of economic exploitation. In a speech before the Chamber of Deputies on 28 July 1885, he declared that 'the superior races have a right because they have a duty: it is their duty to civilize the inferior races'. Ferry directed the negotiations which led to the establishment of a French protectorate in Tunis (1881), prepared the treaty of 17 December 1885 for the occupation of Madagascar; directed the exploration of the Congo and of the Niger region; and above all, he organized the conquest of Annam and Tonkin in what became French Indochina.<br/><br/> The last endeavor led to a war with the Manchu Empire, whose Qing Dynasty had a claim of suzerainty over the two provinces. The excitement caused in Paris by the sudden retreat of the French troops from Lang Son during this war led to the Tonkin Affair: his violent denunciation by Clemenceau and other radicals, and his downfall on 30 March 1885. Although the treaty of peace with the Manchu Empire (9 June 1885), in which the Qing Dynasty ceded suzerainty of Annam and Tonkin to France, was the work of his ministry, he would never again serve as premier.
Charles Robert Darwin, FRS (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist and geologist, best known for his contributions to evolutionary theory. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors, and in a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding.<br/><br/> Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book 'On the Origin of Species', overcoming scientific rejection of earlier concepts of transmutation of species. By the 1870s the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact. However, many favoured competing explanations and it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution. In modified form, Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity of life.
Hand colored engraved image titled 'American Opium Smokers-Interior of a New York Opium Den', drawn by J. W. Alexander for Harper's Weekly.