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Toyohara Chikanobu (1838-1912), often known by his contemporaries as Yoshu Chikanobu, was a prolific woodblock artist active during the Meiji Era of Japan. He served as a soldier for the Tokugawa loyalists at first, but following the Shogitai's surrender, he was remanded to the Takada domain, and in 1875, he decided to become an artist.<br/><br/> He soon become renowned as a highly skilled <i>ukiyo-e</i> artist, with his works ranging from Japanese mythology to depictions of the battlefields from the wars of his time to women's fashions and <i>shunga</i> (erotic art). He produced a great many war prints in triptych format, documenting the Satsuma Rebellion, the First Sino-Japanese War and the First Russo-Japanese War, among other conflicts and events.
Amaterasu, sometimes called by her full name Amaterasu-omikami, is one of the most important deities in the Shinto religion. Goddess of the sun and the universe, Amaterasu's name means 'shining in heaven', while her full name translates to 'the great august kami (god) who shines in the heaven'.<br/><br/> Amaterasu was born from the left eye of the creator god Izanagi as he purified himself from his attempt to save his wife Izanami from the underworld, Yomi. Her brother and later husband, the moon god Tsukuyomi, was born from Izanagi's right eye, while her other brother, the storm god Susanoo, was born from washing the nose. She ruled the heavens alongside her husband until a dispute led to Tsukuyomi being split and sent away, separating night from day.<br/><br/> She also had a great rivalry with her hotheaded brother Susanoo, and after he rampaged through her rice fields and tossed a flayed pony at her loom, as well as killing one of her advisors, Amaterasu fled into a cave and hid herself. With her gone, the sun disappeared and the people suffered, and she was eventually lured out of the cave, while Susanoo was banished from Heaven.<br/><br/> Amaterasu had in her possession three items which she would bequeath to her descendant Ninigi, one of the first emperors of Japan. These items would become the Imperial Regalia of Japan. Amaterasu is still worshipped to this day, with shrines to her scattered throughout Japan.
Macrinus (165-218 CE) was a skilled lawyer serving under Emperor Septimius Severus, before Severus' son and successor Caracalla appointed him to prefect of the Praetorian Guard. He enjoyed the trust and protection of Caracalla, until a prophecy was told that claimed Macrinus would depose and succeed the emperor. Fearing for his life, Macrinus plotted to have Caracalla murdered before he himself was condemned to death.<br/><br/> Manipulating a soldier into murdering Caracalla, Macrinus became emperor in 217 CE, the first Roman emperor not to have hailed from the senatorial class, as well as being the first Mauretanian emperor. He ruled jointly with his young son Diadumenianus, and his first acts as emperor were to try and bring diplomatic and economic stability to an empire that had been dragged to war with several kingdoms by his predecessors. At a heavy cost to the Empire's coffers, Macrinus peacefully resolved many of the wars Rome was embroiled in, but the changes and monetary costs made him enemies in the Roman military.<br/><br/> Julia Maesa, sister in law to Septimius Severus and aunt to Caracalla, took advantage of the unrest to start a rebellion and had her fourteen-year-old grandson Elagabalus recognised as emperor. Macrinus was defeated and executed in 218 CE, with his son also captured and executed later in the year. He and his son were declared enemies of Rome by the Senate, their names struck from the records and their images destroyed.
Marcus Mosiah Garvey, Jr., (17 August 1887 – 10 June 1940), was a Jamaican political leader, publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, and orator who was a proponent of the Pan-Africanism movement, to which end he founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League. He also founded the Black Star Line, a shipping and passenger line which promoted the return of the African diaspora to their ancestral lands.<br/><br/> Garvey advanced a Pan-African philosophy to inspire a global mass movement and economic empowerment focusing on Africa known as 'Garveyism'. Garveyism intended persons of African ancestry in the diaspora to 'redeem' the nations of Africa and for the European colonial powers to leave the continent.
Emperor Taishō (Taisho-tenno, 31 August 1879 – 25 December 1926) was the 123rd Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession, reigning from 30 July 1912, until his death in 1926.<br/><br/> The Emperor’s personal name was Yoshihito. According to Japanese custom, during the reign the emperor is called the (present) Emperor. After death he is known by a posthumous name that, according to a practice dating to 1912, is the name of the era coinciding with his reign. Having ruled during the Taisho period, he is correctly known as The Taisho Emperor.
Vincent Willem van Gogh (30 March 1853 – 29 July 1890) was a Post-Impressionist painter. He was a Dutch artist whose work had a far-reaching influence on 20th century art. His output includes portraits, self portraits, landscapes and still lifes of cypresses, wheat fields and sunflowers.<br/><br/> He drew as a child but did not paint until his late twenties; he completed many of his best-known works during the last two years of his life. In just over a decade, he produced more than 2,100 artworks, including 860 oil paintings and more than 1,300 watercolors, drawings, sketches and prints.<br/><br/> This painting is currently in the Art Institute of Chicago, USA.
The smallest country in South America, Suriname's diversity began in the 16th century when French, Spanish and English explorers visited the area. A century later, plantation colonies were established by the Dutch and English along the many rivers in the fertile Guyana plains.<br/><br/> Disputes arose—as ever—between the Dutch and the English. In 1667, the Dutch decided to keep the nascent plantation colony of Suriname from the English, resulting from the Treaty of Breda. The English were left with New Amsterdam, a small trading post in North America, which later became New York City.<br/><br/> As a plantation colony, Surinam was still heavily dependent on manual labor, and to make up for the shortfall, the Dutch brought in contract laborers from the Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia) and India (through an arrangement with the British). In addition, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, small numbers of mostly men were brought in from China and the Middle East. Although Suriname's population remains relatively small, because of this unique history it is one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse countries in the world.
Marcus Mosiah Garvey, Jr., (17 August 1887 – 10 June 1940), was a Jamaican political leader, publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, and orator who was a proponent of the Pan-Africanism movement, to which end he founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League. He also founded the Black Star Line, a shipping and passenger line which promoted the return of the African diaspora to their ancestral lands.<br/><br/> Garvey advanced a Pan-African philosophy to inspire a global mass movement and economic empowerment focusing on Africa known as 'Garveyism'. Garveyism intended persons of African ancestry in the diaspora to 'redeem' the nations of Africa and for the European colonial powers to leave the continent.
Emperor Meiji (Meiji-tenno, November 3, 1852 – July 30, 1912), or Meiji the Great Meiji-taitei), was the 122nd Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession, reigning from February 3, 1867 until his death on July 30, 1912. He presided over a time of rapid change in the Empire of Japan, as the nation quickly changed from a feudal state to a capitalist and imperial world power, characterized by Japan's industrial revolution.<br/><br/> At the time of his birth in 1852, Japan was an isolated, pre-industrial, feudal country dominated by the Tokugawa Shogunate and the daimyo, who ruled over the country's more than 250 decentralized domains. By the time of his death in 1912, Japan had undergone a political, social, and industrial revolution at home and emerged as one of the great powers on the world stage.
The Black Flag Army (Chinese: Heiqi Jun; Vietnamese: Quan co den) was a splinter remnant of a bandit group recruited largely from soldiers of ethnic Zhuang background, who crossed the border from Guangxi province of China into Upper Tonkin, in the Empire of Annam (Vietnam) in 1865.<br/><br/> They became known mainly for their fights against French forces in cooperation with both Vietnamese and Chinese authorities. The Black Flag Army is so named because of the preference of its commander, Liu Yongfu, for using black command flags.
Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (30 April 1839 – 9 June 1892) was a Japanese artist and Ukiyo-e woodblock print master.<br/><br/> He is widely recognized as the last great master of Ukiyo-e, a type of Japanese woodblock printing. He is additionally regarded as one of the form's greatest innovators. His career spanned two eras – the last years of Edo period Japan, and the first years of modern Japan following the Meiji Restoration. Like many Japanese, Yoshitoshi was interested in new things from the rest of the world, but over time he became increasingly concerned with the loss of many aspects of traditional Japanese culture, among them traditional woodblock printing.<br/><br/> By the end of his career, Yoshitoshi was in an almost single-handed struggle against time and technology. As he worked on in the old manner, Japan was adopting Western mass reproduction methods like photography and lithography. Nonetheless, in a Japan that was turning away from its own past, he almost singlehandedly managed to push the traditional Japanese woodblock print to a new level, before it effectively died with him.
Marcus Mosiah Garvey, Jr., (17 August 1887 – 10 June 1940), was a Jamaican political leader, publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, and orator who was a proponent of the Pan-Africanism movement, to which end he founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League. He also founded the Black Star Line, a shipping and passenger line which promoted the return of the African diaspora to their ancestral lands.<br/><br/> Garvey advanced a Pan-African philosophy to inspire a global mass movement and economic empowerment focusing on Africa known as 'Garveyism'. Garveyism intended persons of African ancestry in the diaspora to 'redeem' the nations of Africa and for the European colonial powers to leave the continent.
Walter 'Walt' Whitman (May 31, 1819 – March 26, 1892) was an American poet, essayist and journalist. A humanist, he was a part of the transition between transcendentalism and realism, incorporating both views in his works.<br/><br/> Whitman is among the most influential poets in the American canon, often called the father of free verse. His work was very controversial in its time, particularly his poetry collection Leaves of Grass, which was considered obscene by some for its overt sexuality.
The Battle of Stalingrad (23 August 1942 – 2 February 1943) was a major battle on the Eastern Front of World War II in which Nazi Germany and its allies fought the Soviet Union for control of the city of Stalingrad (now Volgograd) in Southern Russia, near the eastern boundary of Europe.<br/><br/> Marked by constant close quarters combat and direct assaults on civilians by air raids, it is often regarded as one of the single largest (nearly 2.2 million personnel) and bloodiest (1.7–2 million wounded, killed or captured) battles in the history of warfare. The heavy losses inflicted on the German Wehrmacht make it arguably the most strategically decisive battle of the whole war. It was a turning point in the European theatre of World War II; German forces never regained the initiative in the East and withdrew a vast military force from the West to replace their losses.
Emperor Meiji (Meiji-tenno, November 3, 1852 – July 30, 1912), or Meiji the Great Meiji-taitei), was the 122nd Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession, reigning from February 3, 1867 until his death on July 30, 1912. He presided over a time of rapid change in the Empire of Japan, as the nation quickly changed from a feudal state to a capitalist and imperial world power, characterized by Japan's industrial revolution.<br/><br/> At the time of his birth in 1852, Japan was an isolated, pre-industrial, feudal country dominated by the Tokugawa Shogunate and the daimyo, who ruled over the country's more than 250 decentralized domains. By the time of his death in 1912, Japan had undergone a political, social, and industrial revolution at home and emerged as one of the great powers on the world stage.
Marcus Mosiah Garvey, Jr., (17 August 1887 – 10 June 1940), was a Jamaican political leader, publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, and orator who was a proponent of the Pan-Africanism movement, to which end he founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League. He also founded the Black Star Line, a shipping and passenger line which promoted the return of the African diaspora to their ancestral lands.<br/><br/> Garvey advanced a Pan-African philosophy to inspire a global mass movement and economic empowerment focusing on Africa known as 'Garveyism'. Garveyism intended persons of African ancestry in the diaspora to 'redeem' the nations of Africa and for the European colonial powers to leave the continent.
Yoshifuji was a pupil of Kuniyoshi Utagawa. He specialzed in subjects of warriors and toy paintings. He also worked as an illustrator for children's books.<br/><br/> The Obake monster is variously described as pitch black and velvet.
Arahata Kanson (August 14, 1887 - March 6, 1981) was a 20th-century Japanese labour leader, politician and writer, serving as a major figure in many of the left-wing movements of the era. Starting his political life as a socialist, Arahata moved on to become an anarcho-syndicalist, before evolving into a communist.<br/><br/> Arahata was born in Yokohama, and joined the socialist association Heiminsha in 1904, before being arrested during the Red Flag Incident of 1908. He would eventually join and become a member of the first Central Committee of the Japan Communist Party. After the war however, Arahata left and joined the Japan Socialist Party, serving in the Central Executive Committee and the National Diet from 1946 to 1949.<br/><br/> Arahata spent his time after that devoted to his writing, and eventually passed away in 1981.
William Wordsworth (7 April 1770 – 23 April 1850) was a major English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication <i>Lyrical Ballads</i> (1798).<br/><br/> Wordsworth's magnum opus is generally considered to be <i>The Prelude</i>, a semi-autobiographical poem of his early years that he revised and expanded a number of times. Wordsworth was Britain's Poet Laureate from 1843 until his death in 1850.
Empress Shoken (Shoken-kogo, 9 May 1849 – 9 April 1914), also known as Empress Dowager Shoken (Shoken-kotaigo), was empress consort of Emperor Meiji of Japan.
Vincent Willem van Gogh (30 March 1853 – 29 July 1890) was a Post-Impressionist painter. He was a Dutch artist whose work had a far-reaching influence on 20th century art. His output includes portraits, self portraits, landscapes and still lifes of cypresses, wheat fields and sunflowers.<br/><br/> He drew as a child but did not paint until his late twenties; he completed many of his best-known works during the last two years of his life. In just over a decade, he produced more than 2,100 artworks, including 860 oil paintings and more than 1,300 watercolors, drawings, sketches and prints.<br/><br/> This painting is currently with The Barnes Foundation, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
Toyohara Kunichika (30 June 1835 – 1 July 1900) was a Japanese woodblock print artist. Talented as a child, at about thirteen he became a student of Tokyo's then-leading print maker, Utagawa Kunisada. His deep appreciation and knowledge of kabuki drama led to his production primarily of ukiyo-e actor-prints, which are woodblock prints of kabuki actors and scenes from popular plays of the time.<br/><br/> A drinker and womanizer, Kunichika also portrayed women deemed beautiful (bijinga), contemporary social life, and a few landscapes and historical scenes. He worked successfully in the Edo period, and carried those traditions into the Meiji period. To his contemporaries and now to some modern art historians, this has been seen as a significant achievement during a transitional period of great social and political change in Japan's history.
Samurai is the term for the military nobility of pre-industrial Japan. By the end of the 12th century, samurai became almost entirely synonymous with bushi, and the word was closely associated with the middle and upper echelons of the warrior class.<br/><br/> The samurai followed a set of rules that came to be known as Bushidō. While they numbered less than ten percent of Japan's population, samurai teachings can still be found today in both everyday life and in martial arts such as Kendō, meaning the way of the sword.
Ginger or ginger root is the rhizome of the plant Zingiber officinale, consumed as a delicacy, medicine, or spice. It lends its name to its genus and family (Zingiberaceae). Other notable members of this plant family are turmeric, cardamom, and galangal. The distantly related dicots in the Asarum genus have the common name wild ginger because of their similar taste.<br/><br/> Ginger cultivation began in South Asia and has since spread to East Africa and the Caribbean.
Hugh Clifford intended to follow his father, a distinguished colonial general, into the British Army, but later decided to join the civil service in the Straits Settlements, with the assistance of his relative Sir Frederick Weld, the then Governor of the Straits Settlements and also the British High Commissioner in Malaya. He was later transferred to the British Protectorate of the Federated Malay States. Clifford arrived in Malaya in 1883, aged 17.<br/><br/>He first became a cadet in the State of Perak. During his twenty years in Perak, Clifford socialised with the local Malays and studied their language and culture deeply. He served as British Resident at Pahang, 1896–1900 and 1901–1903, and Governor of North Borneo, 1900–1901.<br/><br/>In 1903, he left Malaya to take the post of Colonial Secretary of Trinidad. Later he was appointed Governor of the Gold Coast, 1912–1919, Nigeria, 1919–1925, and Ceylon, 1925–1927. He continued to write stories and novels about Malayan life. His last posting was as Governor of the Straits Settlements and British High Commissioner in Malaya from 1927 until 1930. He wrote Farther India, which chronicles European explorations and discoveries in Southeast Asia.
Chiang Kai-shek was an influential member of the nationalist party Kuomintang (KMT) and Sun Yat-sen's close ally. He became the Commandant of Kuomintang's Whampoa Military Academy and took Sun's place in the party when the latter died in 1925.<br/><br/> In 1928, Chiang led the Northern Expedition to unify the country, becoming China's overall leader. He served as chairman of the National Military Council of the Nationalist Government of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1928 to 1948. Chiang led China in the Second Sino-Japanese War, during which the Nationalist Government's power severely weakened, but his prominence grew.<br/><br/> Chiang's Nationalists engaged in a long standing civil war with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). After the Japanese surrender in 1945, Chiang attempted to eradicate the Communists. Ultimately, with support from the Soviet Union, the CCP defeated the Nationalists, forcing the Nationalist government to retreat to Taiwan, where martial law was continued while the government still tried to take back mainland China.<br/><br/> Chiang ruled the island with an iron fist as the President of the Republic of China and Director-General of the Kuomintang until his death in 1975
Chiang Kai-shek was an influential member of the nationalist party Kuomintang (KMT) and Sun Yat-sen's close ally. He became the Commandant of Kuomintang's Whampoa Military Academy and took Sun's place in the party when the latter died in 1925. In 1928, Chiang led the Northern Expedition to unify the country, becoming China's overall leader. He served as chairman of the National Military Council of the Nationalist Government of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1928 to 1948. Chiang led China in the Second Sino-Japanese War, during which the Nationalist Government's power severely weakened, but his prominence grew.<br/><br/> Chiang's Nationalists engaged in a long standing civil war with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). After the Japanese surrender in 1945, Chiang attempted to eradicate the Communists. Ultimately, with support from the Soviet Union, the CCP defeated the Nationalists, forcing the Nationalist government to retreat to Taiwan, where martial law was continued while the government still tried to take back mainland China. Chiang ruled the island with an iron fist as the President of the Republic of China and Director-General of the Kuomintang until his death in 1975.
Chiang Kai-shek was an influential member of the nationalist party Kuomintang (KMT) and Sun Yat-sen's close ally. He became the Commandant of Kuomintang's Whampoa Military Academy and took Sun's place in the party when the latter died in 1925. In 1928, Chiang led the Northern Expedition to unify the country, becoming China's overall leader. He served as chairman of the National Military Council of the Nationalist Government of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1928 to 1948. Chiang led China in the Second Sino-Japanese War, during which the Nationalist Government's power severely weakened, but his prominence grew.<br/><br/> Chiang's Nationalists engaged in a long standing civil war with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). After the Japanese surrender in 1945, Chiang attempted to eradicate the Communists. Ultimately, with support from the Soviet Union, the CCP defeated the Nationalists, forcing the Nationalist government to retreat to Taiwan, where martial law was continued while the government still tried to take back mainland China. Chiang ruled the island with an iron fist as the President of the Republic of China and Director-General of the Kuomintang until his death in 1975.
Bodhidharma was a Buddhist monk who lived during the 5th/6th century CE. He is traditionally credited as the transmitter of Ch'an (Sanskrit: Dhyāna, Japanese: Zen) to China, and regarded as the first Chinese patriarch.<br/><br/> According to Chinese legend, he also began the physical training of the Shaolin monks that led to the creation of Shaolinquan.
French Indochina (French: Indochine française; Khmer: សហភាព​ឥណ្ឌូចិន, Vietnamese: Đông Dương thuộc Pháp, frequently abbreviated to Đông Pháp) was part of the French colonial empire in southeast Asia. A federation of the three Vietnamese regions, Tonkin (North), Annam (Central), and Cochinchina (South), as well as Cambodia, was formed in 1887.
French Indochina (French: Indochine française; Khmer: សហភាព​ឥណ្ឌូចិន, Vietnamese: Đông Dương thuộc Pháp, frequently abbreviated to Đông Pháp) was part of the French colonial empire in southeast Asia. A federation of the three Vietnamese regions, Tonkin (North), Annam (Central), and Cochinchina (South), as well as Cambodia, was formed in 1887.
Sandalwoods are medium-sized hemiparasitic trees. Notable members of this group are Indian sandalwood (Santalum album) and Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum). Others in the genus species have fragrant wood. These are found in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Australia, Indonesia, and the Pacific Islands. In India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka it is called Chandan.<br/><br/> The woods are heavy, yellow, and fine-grained, and unlike many other aromatic woods they retain their fragrance for decades
Oiran (花魁) were the courtesans of Edo period Japan. The oiran were considered a type of yūjo (遊女) 'woman of pleasure' or prostitute. However, they were distinguished from the yūjo in that they were entertainers, and many became celebrities of their times outside the pleasure districts. Their art and fashions often set trends among the wealthy and, because of this, cultural aspects of oiran traditions continue to be preserved to this day.<br/><br/> The oiran arose in the Edo period (1600–1868). At this time, laws were passed restricting brothels to walled districts set some distance from the city center. In the major cities these were the Shimabara in Kyoto, the Shinmachi in Osaka, and the Yoshiwara in Edo (present-day Tokyo).<br/><br/> These rapidly grew into large, self-contained 'pleasure quarters' offering all manner of entertainments. Within, a courtesan’s birth rank held no distinction, which was fortunate considering many of the courtesans originated as the daughters of impoverished families who were sold into this lifestyle as indentured servants. Instead, they were categorized based on their beauty, character, education, and artistic ability.<br/><br/> Among the oiran, the tayū (太夫) was considered the highest rank of courtesan and were considered suitable for the daimyo or feudal lords. In the mid-1700s courtesan rankings began to disappear and courtesans of all classes were collectively known simply as 'oiran'.<br/><br/> The word oiran comes from the Japanese phrase oira no tokoro no nēsan (おいらの所の姉さ) which translates as 'my elder sister'. When written in Japanese, it consists of two kanji, 花 meaning 'flower', and 魁 meaning 'leader' or 'first', hence 'Leading Flower' or 'First Flower'.
Đèo Văn Long was the French leader of the Autonomous Tai Federation of Northwestern Tonkin in post-war French Indochina.<br/><br/> Under his father Deo Van Tri, he was the scion of a hereditary feudal noble line with roots in Yunnan province. He generated much revenue for the Federation by acting as a middleman in the opium traffic between the Tai Federation and the French.<br/><br/> He compelled the Hmong of the Federation to sell to him at below-market prices, thus making enormous profit from his sales to the French. This made him rich, but severed his relationship with the Hmong of the Federation, who supported the Viet Minh during the First Indochina War. His use of force to suppress Hmong resistance also decreased his popularity with the Hmong.<br/><br/> As the Dien Bien Phu campaign came to an end, he was helicoptered away to Hanoi. He later immigrated to France as a refugee, but died shortly thereafter. He was succeeded by Deo Nang Toi.
Đèo Văn Long was the French leader of the Autonomous Tai Federation of Northwestern Tonkin in post-war French Indochina.<br/><br/> Under his father Deo Van Tri, he was the scion of a hereditary feudal noble line with roots in Yunnan province. He generated much revenue for the Federation by acting as a middleman in the opium traffic between the Tai Federation and the French.<br/><br/> He compelled the Hmong of the Federation to sell to him at below-market prices, thus making enormous profit from his sales to the French. This made him rich, but severed his relationship with the Hmong of the Federation, who supported the Viet Minh during the First Indochina War. His use of force to suppress Hmong resistance also decreased his popularity with the Hmong.<br/><br/> As the Dien Bien Phu campaign came to an end, he was helicoptered away to Hanoi. He later immigrated to France as a refugee, but died shortly thereafter. He was succeeded by Deo Nang Toi.
Đèo Văn Long was the French leader of the Autonomous Tai Federation of Northwestern Tonkin in post-war French Indochina.<br/><br/> Under his father Deo Van Tri, he was the scion of a hereditary feudal noble line with roots in Yunnan province. He generated much revenue for the Federation by acting as a middleman in the opium traffic between the Tai Federation and the French.<br/><br/> He compelled the Hmong of the Federation to sell to him at below-market prices, thus making enormous profit from his sales to the French. This made him rich, but severed his relationship with the Hmong of the Federation, who supported the Viet Minh during the First Indochina War. His use of force to suppress Hmong resistance also decreased his popularity with the Hmong.<br/><br/> As the Dien Bien Phu campaign came to an end, he was helicoptered away to Hanoi. He later immigrated to France as a refugee, but died shortly thereafter. He was succeeded by Deo Nang Toi.
The Tonkin Campaign (French: Campagne du Tonkin) was an armed conflict fought between June 1883 and April 1886 by the French against, variously, the Vietnamese, Liu Yongfu's Black Flag Army and the Chinese Guangxi and Yunnan armies to occupy Tonkin (northern Vietnam) and entrench a French protectorate there.<br/><br/> The campaign, complicated in August 1884 by the outbreak of the Sino-French War and in July 1885 by the Can Vuong nationalist uprising in Annam, which required the diversion of large numbers of French troops, was conducted by the Tonkin Expeditionary Corps, supported by the gunboats of the Tonkin Flotilla. The campaign officially ended in April 1886, when the expeditionary corps was reduced in size to a division of occupation, but Tonkin was not effectively pacified until 1896.
Chiang Kai-shek was an influential member of the nationalist party Kuomintang (KMT) and Sun Yat-sen's close ally. He became the Commandant of Kuomintang's Whampoa Military Academy and took Sun's place in the party when the latter died in 1925. In 1928, Chiang led the Northern Expedition to unify the country, becoming China's overall leader. He served as chairman of the National Military Council of the Nationalist Government of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1928 to 1948. Chiang led China in the Second Sino-Japanese War, during which the Nationalist Government's power severely weakened, but his prominence grew.<br/><br/> Chiang's Nationalists engaged in a long standing civil war with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). After the Japanese surrender in 1945, Chiang attempted to eradicate the Communists. Ultimately, with support from the Soviet Union, the CCP defeated the Nationalists, forcing the Nationalist government to retreat to Taiwan, where martial law was continued while the government still tried to take back mainland China. Chiang ruled the island with an iron fist as the President of the Republic of China and Director-General of the Kuomintang until his death in 1975
Du Yuesheng (Tu Yüeh-sheng), commonly known as 'Big-Ears Du' (1887–1951) was a Chinese gangster who spent much of his life in Shanghai. He was a key supporter of the Kuomintang (KMT; aka Nationalists) and Chiang Kai-shek in their battle against the Communists during the 1920s, and was a figure of some importance during the Second Sino-Japanese War.<br/><br/> After the Chinese Civil War and the KMT's retreat to Taiwan, Du went into exile in Hong Kong and remained there until his death in 1951. According to a contemporaneous description:<br/><br/> Du Yuesheng is short and slender, with long arms, a shaven head, large yellow teeth and large ears that stick out. He is always accompanied by armed bodyguards, and his home is a fortified drug depot, well stocked with guns and ammunition. Upon entering, the visitor finds the entrance hall lined on both sides with stacks of rifles and sub-machine guns. The house has three floors - on each floor he keeps one of his three wives. He speaks no foreign languages, yet is always keen to meet people of all nationalities, for he gleefully collects gossip and information, no matter how seemingly trivial.<br/><br/> Du employs four bodyguards: an ill-tempered blacksmith called Fiery Old Crow, a gardener, a former waiter from the Shanghai Club who speaks English and a former chauffeur from the American consulate called Stars & Stripes. Du never goes anywhere without being accompanied by two carloads of armed men. If going out on the town to teahouses and nightclubs, one car always goes ahead to check the place out first. Du follows in his bullet proof car with a second car full of his enforcers. Only when his men have surrounded the car door does he get out. Once inside the club, his guards all sit around him with their guns in plain sight to everyone.
Fukami Jikyu, a Japanese fictional hero—similar in reputation to England's Robin Hood—walks proudly in his elegant kimono as cherry blossoms fall around him. Yoshitoshi creates the sense of a calm spring evening in this post-Edo period woodcut. It is from a series titled 'One Hundred Views of the Moon', for which Yoshitoshi is renowned in Japan. Alongside his signature in the cartouche at the top right of the painting, Yoshitoshi has included a short poem. Toshiyoshi's model for this 'otokodate' (fictional hero) character was a local 'kabuki' theatre actor.
In this carefullly posed late 19th century photograph, the woman appears dressed as a bride preparing to ride to her marriage.
Du Yuesheng (Tu Yüeh-sheng), commonly known as 'Big-Ears Du' (1887–1951) was a Chinese gangster who spent much of his life in Shanghai. He was a key supporter of the Kuomintang (KMT; aka Nationalists) and Chiang Kai-shek in their battle against the Communists during the 1920s, and was a figure of some importance during the Second Sino-Japanese War.<br/><br/> After the Chinese Civil War and the KMT's retreat to Taiwan, Du went into exile in Hong Kong and remained there until his death in 1951. According to a contemporaneous description:<br/><br/> Du Yuesheng is short and slender, with long arms, a shaven head, large yellow teeth and large ears that stick out. He is always accompanied by armed bodyguards, and his home is a fortified drug depot, well stocked with guns and ammunition. Upon entering, the visitor finds the entrance hall lined on both sides with stacks of rifles and sub-machine guns. The house has three floors - on each floor he keeps one of his three wives. He speaks no foreign languages, yet is always keen to meet people of all nationalities, for he gleefully collects gossip and information, no matter how seemingly trivial.<br/><br/> Du employs four bodyguards: an ill-tempered blacksmith called Fiery Old Crow, a gardener, a former waiter from the Shanghai Club who speaks English and a former chauffeur from the American consulate called Stars & Stripes. Du never goes anywhere without being accompanied by two carloads of armed men. If going out on the town to teahouses and nightclubs, one car always goes ahead to check the place out first. Du follows in his bullet proof car with a second car full of his enforcers. Only when his men have surrounded the car door does he get out. Once inside the club, his guards all sit around him with their guns in plain sight to everyone.
Chiang Kai-shek (October 31, 1887 – April 5, 1975) was a political and military leader of 20th century China. He is known as Jiǎng Jièshí or Jiǎng Zhōngzhèng in Mandarin. Chiang was an influential member of the Nationalist Party, the Kuomintang (KMT), and was a close ally of Sun Yat-sen. He became the Commandant of the Kuomintang's Whampoa Military Academy, and took Sun's place as leader of the KMT when Sun died in 1925. In 1926, Chiang led the Northern Expedition to unify the country, becoming China's nominal leader. He served as Chairman of the National Military Council of the Nationalist government of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1928 to 1948. Chiang led China in the Second Sino-Japanese War, during which the Nationalist government's power severely weakened, but his prominence grew.<br/><br/> Chiang's Nationalists engaged in a long standing civil war with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). After the Japanese surrender in 1945, Chiang once again became embroiled in a bloody civil war with the Communist Party of China. In 1949 the CCP defeated the Nationalists, forcing the Nationalist government to retreat to Taiwan, where martial law was imposed, and from where the government continued to declare its intention to take back mainland China. Chiang ruled the island securely as the President of the Republic of China and Director-General of the Kuomintang until his death in 1975.
Prince Asaka Yasuhiko (October 2, 1887 – April 12, 1981) of Japan, was the founder of a collateral branch of the Japanese imperial family and a career officer in the Imperial Japanese Army. Son-in-law of Emperor Meiji and uncle by marriage of Emperor Shōwa (Hirohito), Prince Asaka was commander of Japanese forces in the final assault on Nanjing, then the capital city of Nationalist China in December 1937. He was implicated in the Nanjing massacre, but never charged.
The pomegranate /ˈpɒmɨɡrænɨt/, botanical name Punica granatum, is a fruit-bearing deciduous shrub or small tree growing between 5–8 meters (16–26 ft) tall.<br/><br/> The pomegranate is widely considered to have originated in Iran and has been cultivated since ancient times. Today, it is widely cultivated throughout the Mediterranean region of southern Europe, the Middle East and Caucasus region, northern Africa and tropical Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia and the drier parts of southeast Asia. Introduced into Latin America and California by Spanish settlers in 1769, pomegranate is also cultivated in parts of California and Arizona.<br/><br/> In the Northern Hemisphere, the fruit is typically in season from September to February. In the Southern Hemisphere, the pomegranate is in season from March to May.<br/><br/> The pomegranate has been mentioned in many ancient texts, notably in Babylonian texts, the Book of Exodus, the Homeric Hymns and the Quran. In recent years, it has become more common in the commercial markets of North America and the Western Hemisphere.<br/><br/> Pomegranates are used in cooking, baking, juices, smoothies and alcoholic beverages, such as martinis and wine.
Maize ( from Spanish: maíz after Taíno mahiz), known in some English-speaking countries as corn, is a large grain plant domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica in prehistoric times.<br/><br/> The leafy stalk produces ears which contain the grain, which are seeds called kernels. Maize kernels are often used in cooking as a starch.
Japonaiserie was the term the Dutch post-impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh used to express the influence of Japanese art. Before 1854 trade with Japan was confined to a Dutch monopoly and Japanese goods imported into Europe were for the most part confined to porcelain and lacquerware. The Convention of Kanagawa put an end to the 200 year old Japanese foreign policy of Seclusion and opened up trade between Japan and the West.<br/><br/>Artists such as Manet, Degas and Monet, followed by Van Gogh, began to collect the cheap colour wood-block prints called ukiyo-e prints. For a while Vincent and his brother Theo dealt in these prints and they eventually amassed hundreds of them. Subsequently Van Gogh would write (1888): 'All my work is based to some extent on Japanese art...'<br/><br/>Van Gogh made copies of two Hiroshige prints. He enhanced their colours and added borders filled with calligraphic characters he borrowed from other prints. Van Gogh's 'Flowering Plum Tree' is based directly on Hiroshige's 'Plum Park in Kameido (亀戸梅屋舗)', image 30 of '100 Famous Views of Edo' (1856-1859).
Common wheat was first domesticated in Western Asia during the early Holocene, and spread from there to North Africa, Europe and East Asia in the prehistoric period.<br/><br/> Wheat first reached North America with Spanish missions in the 16th century, but North America's role as a major exporter of grain dates from the colonization of the prairies in the 1870s. As grain exports from Russia ceased in the First World War, grain production in Kansas doubled.<br/><br/> Worldwide, bread wheat has proved well adapted to modern industrial baking, and has displaced many of the other wheat, barley, and rye species that were once commonly used for bread making, particularly in Europe.
Du Yuesheng (Tu Yüeh-sheng), commonly known as 'Big-Ears Du' (1887–1951) was a Chinese gangster who spent much of his life in Shanghai. He was a key supporter of the Kuomintang (KMT; aka Nationalists) and Chiang Kai-shek in their battle against the Communists during the 1920s, and was a figure of some importance during the Second Sino-Japanese War. After the Chinese Civil War and the KMT's retreat to Taiwan, Du went into exile in Hong Kong and remained there until his death in 1951.
The lemon is a small evergreen tree native to Asia, and the tree's ellipsoidal yellow fruit. The fruit is used for culinary and non-culinary purposes throughout the world, primarily for its juice, though the pulp and rind (zest) are also used in cooking and baking. The juice of the lemon is about 5% to 6% citric acid, which gives lemons a sour taste. The distinctive sour taste of lemon juice makes it a key ingredient in drinks and foods such as lemonade.<br/><br/> The origin of the lemon is a mystery, though it is thought that lemons first grew in Assam (a region placed in Northeast India), northern Burma, and China.
Koo Vi Kyuin or Ku Wei-chün (simplified Chinese: 顾维钧; traditional Chinese: 顧維鈞; pinyin: Gù Wéijūn; Wade–Giles: Ku Wei-chün) (January 29; 1887 – November 14; 1985); often known by the Western name V.K. Wellington Koo; was a prominent diplomat under the Republic of China; representative to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919; Ambassador to France; Great Britain; and the United States; participant in founding the League of Nations and the United Nations; and judge on the International Court of Justice at the Hague from 1957 to 1967.<br/><br/> Between October 1926 and June 1927; while serving as Minister of Foreign Affairs; Koo briefly held the concurrent positions of acting Premier and interim President of the Republic of China. Koo is the first and only Chinese head of state known to use a Western name publicly.
Paprika is a spice made from ground, dried fruits of Capsicum annuum, either bell pepper or chili pepper varieties or mixtures thereof. Paprika is often associated with Hungary, as it is commonplace in Hungarian cuisine. Spain and Portugal introduced Capsicum annuum to the Old World from the Americas.<br/><br/> Spanish pimentón, as it is known there, often has a smoky flavor because of how the Spanish dry it. Some versions of paprika and pimentón are smoked. The seasoning is used in many cuisines to add color and flavor to dishes, but it is usually associated with Turkey, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Hungary, Romania, Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Morocco, and South Africa.
In 1863, Cambodia became a protectorate of France. In October 1887, the French announced the formation of the Union Indochinoise (Union of Indochina), which at that time comprised Cambodia and the three regions of Vietnam (Tonkin, Annam, and Cochinchina). In 1893, Laos was also annexed. Flag represents French flag canton on a yellow field.
Japonaiserie was the term the Dutch post-impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh used to express the influence of Japanese art. Before 1854 trade with Japan was confined to a Dutch monopoly and Japanese goods imported into Europe were for the most part confined to porcelain and lacquerware. The Convention of Kanagawa put an end to the 200 year old Japanese foreign policy of Seclusion and opened up trade between Japan and the West.<br/><br/>Artists such as Manet, Degas and Monet, followed by Van Gogh, began to collect the cheap colour wood-block prints called ukiyo-e prints. For a while Vincent and his brother Theo dealt in these prints and they eventually amassed hundreds of them. Subsequently Van Gogh would write (1888): 'All my work is based to some extent on Japanese art...'<br/><br/>Van Gogh made copies of two Hiroshige prints. He enhanced their colours and added borders filled with calligraphic characters he borrowed from other prints. Van Gogh's 'The Bridge in the Rain' is based directly on Hiroshige's 'Sudden Shower over Shin-Ōhashi bridge and Atake (大はしあたけの夕立). Image 58 of '100 Famous Views of Edo' (1856-1859).
Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of several trees from the genus Cinnamomum that is used in both sweet and savoury foods. While native only to the island of Sri Lanka, cinnamon trees are now naturalized in South East Asia.<br/><br/> Cinnamon is the name for perhaps a dozen species of trees and the commercial spice products that some of them produce. All are members of the genus Cinnamomum in the family Lauraceae. Only a few of them are grown commercially for spice. In Sri Lanka, the major production region, only Cinnamomum verum (synonym Cinnamomum zeylanicum) is cultivated.<br/><br/> Cinnamon has been known from remote antiquity. It was imported to Egypt as early as 2000 BC. The Hebrew Bible makes specific mention of the spice many times: first when Moses is commanded to use both sweet cinnamon (Hebrew: קִנָּמוֹן, qinnāmôn) and cassia in the holy anointing oil; in Proverbs where the lover's bed is perfumed with myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon; and in Song of Solomon, a song describing the beauty of his beloved, cinnamon scents her garments like the smell of Lebanon.<br/><br/> Cinnamon was a component of the Ketoret that is used when referring to the consecrated incense described in the Hebrew Bible and Talmud. It was offered on the specialized incense altar in the time when the Tabernacle was located in the First and Second Jerusalem Temples.
Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. The fruit, known as a peppercorn when dried, is approximately 5 millimetres (0.20 in) in diameter, dark red when fully mature, and, like all drupes, contains a single seed. Peppercorns, and the ground pepper derived from them, may be described simply as pepper, or more precisely as black pepper (cooked and dried unripe fruit), green pepper (dried unripe fruit) and white pepper (unripe fruit seeds).<br/><br/> Black pepper is native to south India, and is extensively cultivated there and elsewhere in tropical regions. Currently Vietnam is the world's largest producer and exporter of pepper, producing 34% of the world's Piper nigrum crop as of 2008.<br/><br/> Dried ground pepper has been used since antiquity for both its flavor and as a medicine. Black pepper is the world's most traded spice. It is one of the most common spices added to European cuisine and its descendants. The spiciness of black pepper is due to the chemical piperine, not to be confused with the capsaicin that gives fleshy peppers theirs. It is ubiquitous in the modern world as a seasoning, and is often paired with salt.
The cashew tree is a tropical evergreen that produces the cashew nut and the cashew apple. Officially classed as Anacardium occidentale, it can grow as high as 14 metres (46 ft), but the dwarf cashew, growing up to 6 metres (20 ft), has proved more profitable, with earlier maturity and higher yields.<br/><br/> The cashew nut is served as a snack or used in recipes, like other nuts, although it is actually a seed. The cashew apple is a fruit, whose pulp can be processed into a sweet, astringent fruit drink or distilled into liqueur.<br/><br/> The shell of the cashew nut yield derivatives that can be used in many applications from lubricants to paints, and other parts of the tree have traditionally been used for snake-bites and other folk remedies.<br/><br/> Originally native to northeastern Brazil, the tree is now widely grown in tropical regions, Vietnam and Nigeria being major producers.
Chiang Kai-shek was an influential member of the nationalist party Kuomintang (KMT) and Sun Yat-sen's close ally. He became the Commandant of Kuomintang's Whampoa Military Academy and took Sun's place in the party when the latter died in 1925. In 1928, Chiang led the Northern Expedition to unify the country, becoming China's overall leader. He served as chairman of the National Military Council of the Nationalist Government of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1928 to 1948. Chiang led China in the Second Sino-Japanese War, during which the Nationalist Government's power severely weakened, but his prominence grew.<br/><br/> Chiang's Nationalists engaged in a long standing civil war with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). After the Japanese surrender in 1945, Chiang attempted to eradicate the Communists. Ultimately, with support from the Soviet Union, the CCP defeated the Nationalists, forcing the Nationalist government to retreat to Taiwan, where martial law was continued while the government still tried to take back mainland China. Chiang ruled the island with an iron fist as the President of the Republic of China and Director-General of the Kuomintang until his death in 1975
Koo Vi Kyuin or Ku Wei-chün (simplified Chinese: 顾维钧; traditional Chinese: 顧維鈞; pinyin: Gù Wéijūn; Wade–Giles: Ku Wei-chün) (January 29; 1887 – November 14; 1985); often known by the Western name V.K. Wellington Koo; was a prominent diplomat under the Republic of China; representative to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919; Ambassador to France; Great Britain; and the United States; participant in founding the League of Nations and the United Nations; and judge on the International Court of Justice at the Hague from 1957 to 1967.<br/><br/> Between October 1926 and June 1927; while serving as Minister of Foreign Affairs; Koo briefly held the concurrent positions of acting Premier and interim President of the Republic of China. Koo is the first and only Chinese head of state known to use a Western name publicly.
Edwin Lord Weeks (1849 – 1903), American artist and Orientalist, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, in 1849. He was a pupil of Léon Bonnat and of Jean-Léon Gérôme, at Paris. He made many voyages to the East, and was distinguished as a painter of oriental scenes.<br/><br> Weeks' parents were affluent spice and tea merchants from Newton, a suburb of Boston and as such they were able to accept, probably encourage, and certainly finance their son's youthful interest in painting and travelling.<br/><br> As a young man Edwin Lord Weeks visited the Florida Keys to draw and also travelled to Surinam in South America. His earliest known paintings date from 1867 when Edwin Lord Weeks was eighteen years old. In 1895 he wrote and illustrated a book of travels, From the Black Sea through Persia and India.
The coconut palm (<i>Cocos nucifera</i>), is a member of the family Arecaceae (palm family). It is the only accepted species in the genus Cocos. The term coconut can refer to the entire coconut palm, the seed, or the fruit, which, botanically, is a drupe, not a nut. The spelling cocoanut is an archaic form of the word. The term is derived from 16th-century Portuguese and Spanish coco, meaning 'head' or 'skull, from the three indentations on the coconut shell that resemble facial features.<br/><br/> Found throughout the tropic and subtropic area, the coconut is known for its great versatility as seen in the many uses of its different parts. Coconuts are part of the daily diets of many people. Coconuts are different from any other fruits because they contain a large quantity of 'water' and when immature they are known as tender-nuts or jelly-nuts and may be harvested for drinking. When mature, they still contain some water and can be used as seednuts or processed to give oil from the kernel, charcoal from the hard shell and coir from the fibrous husk. The endosperm is initially in its nuclear phase suspended within the coconut water. As development continues, cellular layers of endosperm deposit along the walls of the coconut, becoming the edible coconut 'flesh'.<br/><br/> When dried, the coconut flesh is called copra. The oil and milk derived from it are commonly used in cooking and frying; coconut oil is also widely used in soaps and cosmetics. The clear liquid coconut water within is a refreshing drink. The husks and leaves can be used as material to make a variety of products for furnishing and decorating. It also has cultural and religious significance in many societies that use it.
Areca catechu is the areca palm or areca nut palm betel palm, Filipino: bunga, Indonesia/Malay: pinang, Malayalam: അടക്ക adakka, Kannada: ಅಡಿಕೆ Adike), a species of palm which grows in much of the tropical Pacific, Asia, and parts of east Africa.<br/><br/> The palm is believed to have originated in either Indonesia/Malaysia or the Philippines. Areca is derived from a local name from the Malabar Coast of India and catechu is from another Malay name for this palm, caccu.<br/><br/> This palm is often called the betel tree because its fruit, the areca nut, is often chewed along with the betel leaf, a leaf from a vine of the Piperaceae family.
Palm oil (also known as dendê oil, from Portuguese) is an edible vegetable oil derived from the mesocarp (reddish pulp) of the fruit of the oil palms, primarily the African oil palm Elaeis guineensis, and to a lesser extent from the American oil palm Elaeis oleifera and the maripa palm Attalea maripa.<br/><br/> Palm oil is a common cooking ingredient in the tropical belt of Africa, Southeast Asia and parts of Brazil. Its use in the commercial food industry in other parts of the world is buoyed by its lower cost and by the high oxidative stability (saturation) of the refined product when used for frying.
Edwin Lord Weeks (1849 – 1903), American artist and Orientalist, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, in 1849. He was a pupil of Léon Bonnat and of Jean-Léon Gérôme, at Paris. He made many voyages to the East, and was distinguished as a painter of oriental scenes.<br/><br> Weeks' parents were affluent spice and tea merchants from Newton, a suburb of Boston and as such they were able to accept, probably encourage, and certainly finance their son's youthful interest in painting and travelling.<br/><br> As a young man Edwin Lord Weeks visited the Florida Keys to draw and also travelled to Surinam in South America. His earliest known paintings date from 1867 when Edwin Lord Weeks was eighteen years old. In 1895 he wrote and illustrated a book of travels, From the Black Sea through Persia and India.
The papaya (from Carib via Spanish), papaw, or pawpaw is the fruit of the plant Carica papaya, the sole species in the genus Carica of the plant family Caricaceae. It is native to the tropics of the Americas, perhaps from southern Mexico and neighbouring Central America. It was first cultivated in Mexico several centuries before the emergence of the Mesoamerican classical civilizations.<br/><br/> The papaya is a large, tree-like plant, with a single stem growing from 5 to 10 m (16 to 33 ft) tall, with spirally arranged leaves confined to the top of the trunk. The lower trunk is conspicuously scarred where leaves and fruit were borne. The leaves are large, 50–70 cm (20–28 in) in diameter, deeply palmately lobed, with seven lobes. Unusually for such large plants, the trees are dioecious. The tree is usually unbranched, unless lopped. The flowers are similar in shape to the flowers of the Plumeria, but are much smaller and wax-like. They appear on the axils of the leaves, maturing into large fruit - 15–45 cm (5.9–17.7 in) long and 10–30 cm (3.9–11.8 in) in diameter. The fruit is ripe when it feels soft (as soft as a ripe avocado or a bit softer) and its skin has attained an amber to orange hue.
A walnut is an edible seed of any tree of the genus Juglans (Family Juglandaceae), especially the Persian or English walnut, Juglans regia. Broken nutmeats of the eastern black walnut from the tree Juglans nigra are also commercially available in small quantities, as are foods prepared with butternut nutmeats from Juglans cinerea.<br/><br/> Walnuts are rounded, single-seeded stone fruits of the walnut tree. The walnut fruit is enclosed in a green, leathery, fleshy husk. This husk is inedible. After harvest, the removal of the husk reveals the wrinkly walnut shell, which is in two halves. This shell is hard and encloses the kernel, which is also made up of two halves separated by a partition. The seed kernels — commonly available as shelled walnuts — are enclosed in a brown seed coat which contains antioxidants.
According to oral tradition, tea has been grown in China for more than four millennia. The earliest written accounts of tea making, however, date from around 350 AD, when it first became a drink at the imperial court.<br/><br/> Around 800 AD tea seeds were taken to Japan, where regular cultivation was soon established. Just over five centuries later, in 1517, tea was first shipped to Europe by the Portuguese soon after they began their trade with China. In 1667 the Honourable East India Company ordered the first British shipment of tea from China, requesting of their agents ‘one hundred pounds weight of the best tey that you can get’.<br/><br/> In 1826 the Dutch bought seeds from Japan for cultivation in their growing East Indian Empire, supplementing this effort in 1833 by imports of seeds, workers and implements from China. Meanwhile, also in the 1830s, the East India Company began growing tea on an experimental basis in Assam – the first one hundred boxes of Assamese tea reached Britain in 1840, and found a ready market.<br/><br/> About the same time, tea seedlings were transplanted from Assam to Sri Lanka and planted in the highlands around Kandy. By the beginning of the present century tea was very much in fashion, with plantations established as far afield as Vietnam in Southeast Asia, Georgia in Europe, Natal, Malawi, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique in Africa, Argentina, Brazil and Peru in South America, and Queensland in Australia. Despite this proliferation, however, Sri Lanka remains the largest producer of tea in the world today, with the fragrant black leaf the mainstay of its economy.
Oun Kham (1811 or 1816 - December 15, 1895) was King of Luang Prabang from 1872 to 1887 and a second time between 1889 and 1895. On 7 June, 1887 the Lao royal capital was seized and sacked; the elderly ruler barely escaped with his life. Between his two ruling periods he was exiled to Bangkok in Thailand where he gave assistance to Auguste Pavie ( the first French vice-consul in Luang Prabang in 1885). The last two years of his reign ended with the establishment of a French protectorate over Laos.
Oun Kham (1811 or 1816 - December 15, 1895) was King of Luang Prabang from 1872 to 1887 and a second time between 1889 and 1895. On 7 June, 1887 the Lao royal capital was seized and sacked; the elderly ruler barely escaped with his life. Between his two ruling periods he was exiled to Bangkok in Thailand where he gave assistance to Auguste Pavie ( the first French vice-consul in Luang Prabang in 1885). The last two years of his reign ended with the establishment of a French protectorate over Laos.
Gossypium barbadense is a species of cotton plant. Some types of cotton are American Pima, Egyptian Giza, Indian Suvin, Chinese Xinjiang, Sudanese Barakat, and Russian Tonkovoloknistyi. It is a tropical, frost-sensitive perennial plant that produces yellow flowers and has black seeds. It grows as a small, bushy tree and yields cotton with unusually long, silky fibers. To grow, it requires full sun and high humidity and rainfall.
Rosmarinus officinalis, commonly known as rosemary, is a woody, perennial herb with fragrant, evergreen, needle-like leaves and white, pink, purple, or blue flowers, native to the Mediterranean region. It is a member of the mint family Lamiaceae, which includes many other herbs.<br/><br/> The name 'rosemary' derives from the Latin for 'dew' (ros) and 'sea' (marinus), or 'dew of the sea. The plant is also sometimes called anthos, from the ancient Greek word ἄνθος, meaning 'flower'.
Coffee is a brewed beverage with a bitter flavor prepared from the roasted seeds of the coffee plant. The beans are found in coffee cherries, which grow on trees cultivated in over 70 countries, primarily in equatorial Latin America, Southeast Asia, South Asia and Africa. Green (unroasted) coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world. Coffee can have a stimulating effect on humans due to its caffeine content. It is one of the most-consumed beverages in the world.<br/><br/> Wild coffee's energizing effect was likely first discovered in the northeast region of Ethiopia. Coffee cultivation first took place in southern Arabia; the earliest credible evidence of coffee drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century in the Sufi shrines of Yemen. From the Muslim world, coffee consumption and cultivation spread to India, to Italy, and on to the rest of Europe, Indonesia and the Americas.<br/><br/> Coffee berries, which contain the coffee seeds or 'beans', are produced by several species of small evergreen bush of the genus Coffea. The two most commonly grown are the highly regarded Coffea arabica, and the 'robusta' form of the hardier Coffea canephora. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried. The seeds are then roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. They are then ground and brewed to create coffee.
<i>Iris pallida</i> (Dalmatian iris or Sweet iris) is a hardy flowering perennial plant of the genus Iris, family Iridaceae. It is native to the Dalmatian coast (Croatia) but widely naturalised elsewhere. It is a member of the subgenus iris, meaning that it is a bearded iris, and grows from a rhizome.<br/><br/> It is cultivated as a garden plant, and commercially for extraction of essential oils from its rhizome (orris root). It has also been used as a medicinal plant in the Middle East to cure Urinary tract infections, by boiling the leaves or the rhizomes in water.
<i>Iris germanica</i> grows up to 120 cm high and 30 cm wide. The roots can go up to 10 cm deep. It is a rhizomatous perennial that blooms in April to June. Lifting, dividing and replanting the rhizomes is best done once flowering has finished as this is when the plant grows the new shoots that will flower the following year.<br/><br/> Hundreds of hybrids exist representing every colour from jet black to sparkling whites. The only colour really missing is bright scarlet.
Quince is the sole member of the genus Cydonia in the family Rosaceae (which also contains apples and pears, among other fruits). The quince /ˈkwɪns/, is a small deciduous tree that bears a pome fruit, similar in appearance to a pear, and bright golden-yellow when mature. Throughout history the cooked fruit has been used as food, but the tree is also grown for its attractive pale pink blossom and other ornamental qualities.<br/><br/> The tree grows 5 to 8 metres (16 and a half feet to 26 feet) high and 4 to 6 metres (13 feet to 19 and a half feet) wide. The fruit is 7 to 12 centimetres (3 to 5 inches) long and 6 to 9 centimetres (2 to 3 and a half inches) across.<br/><br/> It is native to rocky slopes and woodland margins in South-west Asia, Turkey and Iran.
<i>Daphne mezereum</i>, commonly known as mezereon, is a species of Daphne in the flowering plant family Thymelaeaceae, native to most of Europe and Western Asia, north to northern Scandinavia and Russia. In southern Europe it is confined to medium to higher elevations and in the subalpine vegetation zone, but descends to near sea level in northern Europe. It is generally confined to soils derived from limestone.<br/><br/> It is a deciduous shrub growing to 1.5 m tall. The leaves are soft, 3–8 cm long and 1–2 cm broad, arranged spirally on the stems. The flowers are produced in early spring on the bare stems before the leaves appear. They have a four-lobed pink or light purple (rarely white) perianth 10–15 mm diameter, and are strongly scented. The fruit is a bright red berry 7–12 mm diameter; it is very poisonous for people, though fruit-eating birds like thrushes are immune and eat them, dispersing the seeds in their droppings.
Bitter orange, Seville orange, sour orange, bigarade orange, or marmalade orange refers to a citrus tree (Citrus aurantium) and its fruit. It is hybrid between Citrus maxima (pomelo) and Citrus reticulata (mandarin). Many varieties of bitter orange are used for their essential oil, which is used in perfume, as a flavoring and as a solvent. The Seville orange variety is used in the production of marmalade.<br/><br/> Bitter orange is also employed in herbal medicine as a stimulant and appetite suppressant, due to its active ingredient, synephrine. Bitter orange supplements have been linked to a number of serious side effects and deaths, and consumer groups advocate avoiding medicinal use of the fruit