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An illustration by Muhammad ibn Yaqub al-Khuttuli (9th century, Iraq or Syria) identifying various parts of the anatomy of a horse.
Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham (Arabic: أبو علي، الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم‎), frequently referred to as Ibn al-Haytham (Arabic: ابن الهيثم, Latinized as Alhazenor Alhacen; c. 965 – c. 1040), was an Arab Muslim polymath and philosopher who made significant contributions to the principles of optics, astronomy, mathematics, meteorology, visual perception and the scientific method.<br/><br/> In medieval Europe, he was honored as Ptolemaeus Secundus ('Ptolemy the Second') or simply called 'The Physicist'. He is also sometimes called al-Basri (Arabic: البصري) after Basra, his birthplace. He spent most of his life close to the court of the Caliphate in Cairo and earned his life authoring various treatises and tutoring members of the nobilities.
Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham (Arabic: أبو علي، الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم‎), frequently referred to as Ibn al-Haytham (Arabic: ابن الهيثم, Latinized as Alhazenor Alhacen; c. 965 – c. 1040), was an Arab Muslim polymath and philosopher who made significant contributions to the principles of optics, astronomy, mathematics, meteorology, visual perception and the scientific method.<br/><br/> In medieval Europe, he was honored as Ptolemaeus Secundus ('Ptolemy the Second') or simply called 'The Physicist'. He is also sometimes called al-Basri (Arabic: البصري) after Basra, his birthplace. He spent most of his life close to the court of the Caliphate in Cairo and earned his life authoring various treatises and tutoring members of the nobilities.
Hunayn ibn Ishaq ( Latin: Iohannitius) (809 – 873) was a famous and influential scholar, physician, and scientist of Nestorian Arab Christian descent. He and his students transmitted their Syriac and Arabic translations of many classical Greek texts throughout the Islamic world, during the apex of the Islamic Abbasid Caliphate.<br/><br/> Hunayn ibn Ishaq was the most productive translator of Greek medical and scientific treatises in his day. He studied Greek and became known among the Arabs as the 'Sheikh of the translators'. He mastered four languages: Arabic, Syriac, Greek and Persian.
The <i>Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry</i> is the most famous and possibly the best surviving example of French Gothic manuscript illumination, showing the late International Gothic phase of the style. It is a book of hours: a collection of prayers to be said at the canonical hours.<br/><br/> It was created between c. 1412 and 1416 for the extravagant royal bibliophile and patron John, Duke of Berry, by the Limbourg brothers. When the three painters and their sponsor died in 1416, possibly victims of plague, the manuscript was left unfinished.<br/><br/> It was further embellished in the 1440s by an anonymous painter, who many art historians believe was Barthelemy d'Eyck. In 1485-1489, it was brought to its present state by the painter Jean Colombe on behalf of the Duke of Savoy. Acquired by the Duc d'Aumale in 1856, the book is now MS 65 in the Musee Conde, Chantilly, France.
Traditional Tibetan medicine is a centuries-old traditional medical system that employs a complex approach to diagnosis, incorporating techniques such as pulse analysis and urinalysis, and utilizes behavior and dietary modification, medicines composed of natural materials (e.g., herbs and minerals) and physical therapies (e.g. Tibetan acupuncture, moxabustion, etc.) to treat illness.<br/><br/> The Tibetan medical system is based upon Indian Buddhist literature (for example Abhidharma and Vajrayana tantras) and Ayurveda. It continues to be practiced in Tibet, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Ladakh, Siberia, China and Mongolia, as well as more recently in parts of Europe and North America. It embraces the traditional Buddhist belief that all illness ultimately results from the three poisons: ignorance, attachment and aversion.
Traditional Tibetan medicine is a centuries-old traditional medical system that employs a complex approach to diagnosis, incorporating techniques such as pulse analysis and urinalysis, and utilizes behavior and dietary modification, medicines composed of natural materials (e.g., herbs and minerals) and physical therapies (e.g. Tibetan acupuncture, moxabustion, etc.) to treat illness.<br/><br/> The Tibetan medical system is based upon Indian Buddhist literature (for example Abhidharma and Vajrayana tantras) and Ayurveda. It continues to be practiced in Tibet, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Ladakh, Siberia, China and Mongolia, as well as more recently in parts of Europe and North America. It embraces the traditional Buddhist belief that all illness ultimately results from the three poisons: ignorance, attachment and aversion.
Traditional Tibetan medicine is a centuries-old traditional medical system that employs a complex approach to diagnosis, incorporating techniques such as pulse analysis and urinalysis, and utilizes behavior and dietary modification, medicines composed of natural materials (e.g., herbs and minerals) and physical therapies (e.g. Tibetan acupuncture, moxabustion, etc.) to treat illness.<br/><br/> The Tibetan medical system is based upon Indian Buddhist literature (for example Abhidharma and Vajrayana tantras) and Ayurveda. It continues to be practiced in Tibet, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Ladakh, Siberia, China and Mongolia, as well as more recently in parts of Europe and North America. It embraces the traditional Buddhist belief that all illness ultimately results from the three poisons: ignorance, attachment and aversion.
Traditional Tibetan medicine is a centuries-old traditional medical system that employs a complex approach to diagnosis, incorporating techniques such as pulse analysis and urinalysis, and utilizes behavior and dietary modification, medicines composed of natural materials (e.g., herbs and minerals) and physical therapies (e.g. Tibetan acupuncture, moxabustion, etc.) to treat illness.<br/><br/> The Tibetan medical system is based upon Indian Buddhist literature (for example Abhidharma and Vajrayana tantras) and Ayurveda. It continues to be practiced in Tibet, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Ladakh, Siberia, China and Mongolia, as well as more recently in parts of Europe and North America. It embraces the traditional Buddhist belief that all illness ultimately results from the three poisons: ignorance, attachment and aversion.
Manṣūr ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad, Tashrīḥ-i badan-i insān ('The Anatomy of the Human Body'). Persian manuscript, copy undated; appearance of paper, handwriting, ink, illustrations, etc. suggest ca. late 15th or very early 16th century.
Muḥammad Akbar 'urf Muḥammad, Copy undated: appearance of paper, handwriting, ink, etc. suggests a date of ca. 18th century.
Anatomical drawing of a male body showing the bones and organs. Tibet - Early 20th century Thangka, Gouache on paper.<br/><br/> Tibetan medicine or <i>Sowa-Rigpa</i> ('Healing Science') is a centuries-old traditional medical system that employs a complex approach to diagnosis, incorporating techniques such as pulse analysis and urinalysis, and utilizes behavior and dietary modification, medicines composed of natural materials (e.g., herbs and minerals) and physical therapies (e.g. Tibetan acupuncture, moxabustion, etc.) to treat illness.<br/><br/> The Tibetan medical system is based upon a synthesis of the Indian (Ayurveda), Persian (Unani), Greek, indigenous Tibetan, and Chinese medical systems, and it continues to be practiced in Tibet, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Ladakh, Siberia, China and Mongolia, as well as more recently in parts of Europe and North America. It embraces the traditional Buddhist belief that all illness ultimately results from the 'three poisons' of the mind: ignorance, attachment and aversion.
Manṣūr ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad, Tashrīḥ-i badan-i insān ('The Anatomy of the Human Body'). Persian manuscript, copy undated; appearance of paper, handwriting, ink, illustrations, etc. suggest ca. late 15th or very early 16th century.
Muḥammad Akbar 'urf Muḥammad, Copy undated: appearance of paper, handwriting, ink, etc. suggests a date of ca. 18th century.
Manṣūr ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad, Tashrīḥ-i badan-i insān ('The Anatomy of the Human Body'). Persian manuscript, copy undated; appearance of paper, handwriting, ink, illustrations, etc. suggest ca. late 15th or very early 16th century.
Z̲akhīrah-i Khwārazm Shāhī, 'The treasure of Khwārazm Shāh', by Ismā’īl ibn al-Hasan. Copy of an earlier Persian work Composed not earlier than 1110 and dedicated to Qutb al-Dīn Muhammad Anūshtakīn Khwārazm Shah, who died in 1127.
Muḥammad Akbar 'urf Muḥammad, Copy undated: appearance of paper, handwriting, ink, etc. suggests a date of ca. 18th century.
Manṣūr ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad, Tashrīḥ-i badan-i insān ('The Anatomy of the Human Body'). Persian manuscript, copy undated; appearance of paper, handwriting, ink, illustrations, etc. suggest ca. late 15th or very early 16th century.
Muḥammad Akbar 'urf Muḥammad, Copy undated: appearance of paper, handwriting, ink, etc. suggests a date of ca. 18th century.
Muḥammad Akbar 'urf Muḥammad, Copy undated: appearance of paper, handwriting, ink, etc. suggests a date of ca. 18th century.
Manṣūr ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad, Tashrīḥ-i badan-i insān ('The Anatomy of the Human Body'). Persian manuscript, copy undated; appearance of paper, handwriting, ink, illustrations, etc. suggest ca. late 15th or very early 16th century.
Muḥammad Akbar 'urf Muḥammad, Copy undated: appearance of paper, handwriting, ink, etc. suggests a date of ca. 18th century.
Kamal al-Din Hasan ibn Ali ibn Hasan al-Farisi or Abu Hasan Muhammad ibn Hasan (1267– 12 January 1319 (Persian: كمال‌الدين فارسی‎) was a prominent Persian born in Tabriz, Iran. He made two major contributions to science, one on optics, the other on number theory. Farisi was a pupil of the great astronomer and mathematician Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, who in turn was a pupil of Nasir al-Din Tusi.<br/><br/> His work on optics was prompted by a question put to him concerning the refraction of light. Shirazi advised him to consult 'The Book of Optics' of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen), and Farisi made such a deep study of this treatise that Shirazi suggested that he write what is essentially a revision of that major work, which came to be called the Tanqih.
Bernardino Genga (1620–1690) was a scholar of Classical medical texts, editing several works of Hippocrates. He also had a great interest in the preparation of anatomical specimens as well as the anatomy of ancient Greek and Roman sculpture. These interests led to his work at the French Academy in Rome, where he taught anatomy to artists.<br/><br/> 'Anatomia per Uso et Intelligenza del Disegno' consists of 59 copperplate engravings of text and illustrations printed on one side only. After the engraved title is a plate with allegorical emblems of death. Of the illustrated plates, the first 23 deal with osteology and myology drawn from Genga's anatomical preparations. The remainder consists of representations of antique statues viewed from different angles.<br/><br/> An English translation of the work appeared in London in 1723 under the title: 'Anatomy Improved'.
Bernardino Genga (1620–1690) was a scholar of Classical medical texts, editing several works of Hippocrates. He also had a great interest in the preparation of anatomical specimens as well as the anatomy of ancient Greek and Roman sculpture. These interests led to his work at the French Academy in Rome, where he taught anatomy to artists.<br/><br/> 'Anatomia per Uso et Intelligenza del Disegno' consists of 59 copperplate engravings of text and illustrations printed on one side only. After the engraved title is a plate with allegorical emblems of death. Of the illustrated plates, the first 23 deal with osteology and myology drawn from Genga's anatomical preparations. The remainder consists of representations of antique statues viewed from different angles.<br/><br/> An English translation of the work appeared in London in 1723 under the title: 'Anatomy Improved'.
The Edwin Smith papyrus, the world's oldest surviving surgical document. Written in hieratic script in ancient Egypt around 1600 BCE, the text describes anatomical observations and the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of 48 types of medical problems in exquisite detail. Plate 6 and 7 of the papyrus, pictured here, discuss facial trauma.