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George Castriot (Albanian: Gjergj Kastrioti; 6 May 1405 – 17 January 1468), known as Skanderbeg (Albanian: Skenderbej or Skenderbeu from Turkish: Iskender Bey), was an Albanian nobleman and military commander who served the Ottoman Empire in 1423–43, the Republic of Venice in 1443–47, and lastly the Kingdom of Naples until his death.<br/><br/> After leaving Ottoman service, he led a rebellion against the Ottoman Empire in Albania. Skanderbeg's military skills presented a major obstacle to Ottoman expansion, and he was considered by many in western Europe to be a model of Christian resistance against the Ottoman Muslims.
Mehmed II or Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror (30 March 1432 – 3 May 1481) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire twice, first for a short time from 1444 to September 1446, and later from February 1451 to 1481.<br/><br/> At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople and brought an end to the Byzantine Empire, transforming the Ottoman state into an empire. Mehmed continued his conquests in Asia, with the Anatolian reunification, and in Europe, as far as Bosnia and Croatia. Mehmed II is regarded as a national hero in Turkey, and among other things, Istanbul's Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, Fatih University and Fatih College are all named after him.
Muzaffar al-Din Jahan Shah ibn Yusuf (1397 Khoy— 1467 Tabriz) (Persian: جهان شاه‎; Azerbaijani: Cahan Şah) was the leader of the Kara Koyunlu oghuz Turks tribal federation in Azerbaijan and Arran who reigned c.1438-1467.<br/><br/> During his reign he managed to expand the Kara Koyunlu’s territory to its largest extent, including Western Anatolia, most of present day Iraq, central Iran, and even eventually Kerman. He also subjugated neighbouring states. He was one of the greatest rulers of the Kara Koyunlu.<br/><br/> Upon the death of the Timurid ruler Shah Rukh in 1447, Jahan Shah became an independent ruler of the Kara Koyunlu, and started to use the titles of sultan and khan.<br/><br/> From around 1447 Jahan Shah was involved in a struggle against the Ak Koyunlu who had always been sworn enemies of the Kara Koyunlu. On 11 November 1467 at the Battle of Chapakchur, Jahan Shah was killed while trying to flee the Ak Koyunlu forces of Uzun Hassan, and with his death the great era of Kara Koyunlu history came to an end.
The Ağ Qoyunlu or Ak Koyunlu, also called the White Sheep Turkomans (Azerbaijani: Ağqoyunlular, Turkish: Akkoyunlular, Turkmen: Akgoýunly, Persian: آق قویونلو), was a Sunni Oghuz Turkic tribal federation that ruled parts of present-day Eastern Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, northern Iraq, and Iran from 1378 to 1501.<br/><br/> The Aq Qoyunlu Turkomans first acquired land in 1402, when Timur granted them all of Diyar Bakr in present-day Turkey. For a long time, the Aq Qoyunlu were unable to expand their territory, as the rival Kara Koyunlu or 'Black Sheep Turkomans' kept them at bay. However, this changed with the rule of Uzun Hassan, who defeated the Black Sheep Turkoman leader Jahān Shāh in 1467.<br/><br/> Following Sultan Ya'qub's death, civil war erupted, the Aq Qoyunlus destroyed themselves from within, and they ceased to be a threat to their neighbors. The Safavids and the Aq Qoyunlu met in battle at Nakhchivan in 1501, and the Safavid leader Ismail I forced the Aq Qoyunlu to withdraw.<br/><br/> In his retreat from the Safavids, the Aq Qoyunlu leader Alwand destroyed an autonomous splinter Aq Qoyunlu state in Mardin. The last Aq Qoyunlu leader, Murad, brother of Alwand, was also defeated by the same Safavid leader. Though Murād briefly established himself in Baghdad in 1501, he soon withdrew back to Diyar Bakr, signaling the end of the Aq Qoyunlu rule.
Murad Bey (c. 1750 – 1801) was an Egyptian Mamluk chieftain (Bey), cavalry commander and joint ruler of Egypt with Ibrahim Bey. He was of Georgian origin having been born inTbilisi. Following his defeat at the hands of Napoleon's armies at the Battle of the Pyramids, Murad fled to Upper Egypt, mounting a brief guerrilla campaign that staved off Desaix for a year. In 1800, Murad made peace with Jean Baptiste Kléber, and agreed to garrison Cairo, but died of bubonic plague on his journey there.
The Beys of Tunis were the monarchs of Tunisia from 1705, when the Husainid Dynasty acceded to the throne, until 1957, when monarchy was abolished.<br/><br/> Ali II ibn Hussein (24 November 1712 – 26 May 1782) (Arabic: أبو الحسن علي باي‎) was the fourth leader of the Husainid Dynasty and the ruler of Tunisia from 1759 until his death in 1782.