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Julian (331-363), also known as Julian the Apostate, was a member of the Constantinian Dynasty and cousin to Emperor Constantius II. Emperor Constantius II made him Caesar of the western provinces in 355 while he was busy fighting the Sassanid Empire in the east, entrusting Julian against the Alamanni and Franks.<br/><br/> Julian was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers in 360, and Constantius II died in 361 while marching to face him. Constantius claimed Julian as his rightful successor on his deathbed however. Unlike his recent predecessors, Julian was not a Christian and did not possess any Christian sympathies, returning to the traditional religious practices of Rome to the detriment of Christianity and Judaism, resulting in him being named 'Julian the Apostate'.<br/><br/> Julian died in 363 during his ambitious campaign against the Sassanid Empire, after he was mortally wounded in battle. He became the last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire, and the last of the Constantinian Dynasty.
Constantine II (316-340) was the second son of Constantine the Great and Fausta, and became the eldest after his father executed his half-brother Crispus. After his father died in 337, Constantine II initially became co-emperor alongside his brothers Constantius II and Constans as well as his cousins Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, though his cousins were soon out of the picture when he and his brothers arranged for the slaughter of most of the rest of the imperial family.<br/><br/> Constantine II became emperor of Gaul, Britannia, Hispania, and Mauretania when he formally partitioned the empire with his brothers. He soon became embroiled in the growing friction within the Christian Church, supporting Catholicism while his brother Constantius II was an ardent supporter of Arianism.<br/><br/> He also quarreled with his younger brother Constans, who he was legal guardian over, about territory within the African provinces. He refused to relinquish guardianship over Constans when the latter came of age, and marched into Italy in 340, where he was ambushed and killed by Constans' troops, who took control over his brother's portion of the empire.
Born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, Nero was the only son of Agrippina the Younger, who would later marry his great-uncle Emperor Claudius. Claudius adopted Nero and was made heir and successor alongside Claudius' own son Brittanicus. Nero acceded to the throne after Claudius' death in 54 CE, possibly poisoned at the hands of Nero's mother.<br/><br/> Nero's reign is infamous for his corruption, tyranny and extravagance, as well as his many executions, including that of his mother and the poisoning of his stepbrother Britannicus soon after the start of his rule. His most infamous mark on history however, is his presumed starting of the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE, which caused widespread destruction and was intentionally done to clear space for Nero's planned palatial complex, the Domus Aurea.<br/><br/> In 68 CE, Nero was driven from the throne by rebellion, and he committed suicide that same year. With his death came the the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, leading to the tumultuous period known as the Year of the Four Emperors.
Claudius (10 BCE-54 CE) was the first Roman emperor to be born outside of Italy, and he was ostracised and exempted from public office for much of his life due to slight deafness and being afflicted with a limp. It was his infirmity that would save him from the noble purges that occurred during the reigns of Tiberius and Caligula, as he was not seen as a serious threat.<br/><br/> Due to being the last surviving man of the Julio-Claudian family, Claudius was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard after their assassination of Caligula. Despite his only previous experience being sharing a consulship with his nephew Caligula in 37 CE, he proved to be a capable administrator, as well as an ambitious builder across the Empire. The conquest of Britain began under his reign, and his seeming vulnerability meant that Claudius often had to shore up his position, usually through the deaths of rival senators and nobles.<br/><br/> Claudius died in 54 CE, either from natural causes or more probably poisoned by his wife, Agrippina the Younger. He was succeeded after his death by his adopted son, Nero, Agrippina's child.
Born Tiberius Claudius Nero, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla, he became step-son of Octavian (later to become Augustus, first emperor of Rome) after his mother was forced to divorce Nero and marry him.<br/><br/> Tiberius would eventually marry Augustus' daughter from his previous marriage, Julia the Elder, and later be adopted by Augustus, officially becoming a Julian, bearing the name Tiberius Julius Caesar.<br/><br/> In relations to the other emperors of this dynasty, Tiberius was the stepson of Augustus, grand-uncle of Caligula, paternal uncle of Claudius, and great-grand uncle of Nero.<br/><br/> Tiberius was one of Rome's greatest generals, with his conquest of Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and temporarily, parts of Germania, creating the foundations for the empire's northern frontier. However, he came to be known as a dark, reclusive, and sombre ruler who never really desired to be emperor; Pliny the Elder called him <i>tristissimus hominum</i>, 'the gloomiest of men'.
Born Tiberius Claudius Nero, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla, he became step-son of Octavian (later to become Augustus, first emperor of Rome) after his mother was forced to divorce Nero and marry him.<br/><br/> Tiberius would eventually marry Augustus' daughter from his previous marriage, Julia the Elder, and later be adopted by Augustus, officially becoming a Julian, bearing the name Tiberius Julius Caesar.<br/><br/> In relations to the other emperors of this dynasty, Tiberius was the stepson of Augustus, grand-uncle of Caligula, paternal uncle of Claudius, and great-grand uncle of Nero.<br/><br/> Tiberius was one of Rome's greatest generals, with his conquest of Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and temporarily, parts of Germania, creating the foundations for the empire's northern frontier. However, he came to be known as a dark, reclusive, and sombre ruler who never really desired to be emperor; Pliny the Elder called him <i>tristissimus hominum</i>, 'the gloomiest of men'.
Claudius II (210-270), also known as Claudius Gothicus, was of Illyrian origin and barbarian birth. He was a career soldier, having served his entire adult life in the Roman army. He was a military tribune in Emperor Gallienus' army during the siege of Milan in 268 when Gallienus was murdered by his own ofifcials, possibly including Claudius. Claudius was then proclaimed emperor by his own soldiers, possibly because of his physical strength and cruelty.<br/><br/> Claudius, like the previous barbarian emperor Maximinus Thrax, was a soldier-emperor, the first in a series that would restore the Empire from the disaster that had been the Crisis of the Third Century. The Empire had been divided into three different entities under the reign of Gallienus, with the Gallic Empire in the West and Palmyrene Empire in the East. Claudius, however, focused his immediate attentions on dealing with foreign invaders, defeating the Goths during the Battle of Naissus in one of the greatest victories in Roman history, earning him the surname 'Gothicus' (conquerer of the Goths).<br/><br/> He then turned his attention to the Gallic Empire, winning several victories and regaining control of Hispania and parts of Gaul. He was killed by the Plague of Cyprian in January 270 before he could finish off the Gallic Empire however, naming Aurelian as his successor.
Italy: Julian the Apostate (331-363), 63rd Roman emperor, from the book <i>Icones imperatorvm romanorvm</i> (Icons of Roman Emperors), Antwerp, c. 1645. Julian was a member of the Constantinian Dynasty and cousin to Emperor Constantius II. Emperor Constantius II made him Caesar of the western provinces in 355 while he was busy fighting the Sassanid Empire in the east, entrusting Julian against the Alamanni and Franks. Julian was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers in 360.
Born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (37-68 CE), Nero was the only son of Agrippina the Younger, who would later marry his great-uncle Emperor Claudius. Claudius adopted Nero, who was made heir and successor alongside Claudius' own son Brittanicus. Nero acceded to the throne after Claudius' death in 54 CE, possibly poisoned at the hands of Nero's mother.<br/><br/> Nero's reign is infamous for his corruption, tyranny and extravagance, as well as his many executions, including that of his mother and the poisoning of his stepbrother Britannicus soon after the start of his rule. His most infamous mark on history however, is his presumed starting of the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE, which caused widespread destruction and was intentionally done to clear space for Nero's planned palatial complex, the Domus Aurea.<br/><br/> In 68 CE, Nero was driven from the throne by rebellion, and he committed suicide that same year. With his death came the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, leading to the tumultuous period known as the Year of the Four Emperors.
Constantine II (316-340) was the second son of Constantine the Great and Fausta, and became the eldest after his father executed his half-brother Crispus. After his father died in 337, Constantine II initially became co-emperor alongside his brothers Constantius II and Constans as well as his cousins Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, though his cousins were soon out of the picture when he and his brothers arranged for the slaughter of most of the rest of the imperial family.<br/><br/> Constantine II became emperor of Gaul, Britannia, Hispania, and Mauretania when he formally partitioned the empire with his brothers. He soon became embroiled in the growing friction within the Christian Church, supporting Catholicism while his brother Constantius II was an ardent supporter of Arianism.<br/><br/> He also quarreled with his younger brother Constans, who he was legal guardian over, about territory within the African provinces. He refused to relinquish guardianship over Constans when the latter came of age, and marched into Italy in 340, where he was ambushed and killed by Constans' troops, who took control over his brother's portion of the empire.
Claudius (10 BCE-54 CE) was the first Roman emperor to be born outside of Italy, and he was ostracised and exempted from public office for much of his life due to slight deafness and being afflicted with a limp. It was his infirmity that would save him from the noble purges that occurred during the reigns of Tiberius and Caligula, as he was not seen as a serious threat.<br/><br/> Due to being the last surviving man of the Julio-Claudian family, Claudius was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard after their assassination of Caligula. Despite his only previous experience being sharing a consulship with his nephew Caligula in 37 CE, he proved to be a capable administrator, as well as an ambitious builder across the Empire. The conquest of Britain began under his reign, and his seeming vulnerability meant that Claudius often had to shore up his position, usually through the deaths of rival senators and nobles.<br/><br/> Claudius died in 54 CE, either from natural causes or more probably poisoned by his wife, Agrippina the Younger. He was succeeded after his death by his adopted son, Nero, Agrippina's child.
Quintillus (212-270) was born at Sirmium to a low-born family, only coming to any prominence when his brother Claudius II Gothicus became emperor in 268. When Claudius II died two years later in 270, Quintillus was declared his successor, either by the Roman Senate or by his brother's soldiers.<br/><br/> The exact dates and length of Quintillus' reign are contradictory, lasting anything from 17 to 177 days. Similarly, the cause of his death is unknown, with some sources stating that he was murdered by his own soldiers for his strict military discipline, while others report him being killed in battle against rival claimant Aurelian. Still some sources claim that he committed suicide.<br/><br/> What few records remain of him claim Quintillus to be a moderate and capable ruler, a champion of the Senate and spiritual successor to previous Emperors Galba and Pertinax.
Tacitus (200-276 CE) was born in Interamna (Terni), Italia, and worked for much of his long life in various civil offices, including a term as consul in 273, earning him much universal respect. When Aurelian was assassinated by the Praetorian Guard, Tacitus was chosen as his successor after a brief interregnum by the Roman Senate, the last time the Senate would elect an emperor.<br/><br/> Tacitus' brief reign saw him fight against barbarian mercenaries that had been serving under Aurelian but had broken away to plunder several towns in the Eastern Roman provinces after the previous emperor's death. He then turned his attention to a resurgent Alammanic and Frankish invasion in the province of Gaul, but died of fever on the march westwards. Some other accounts claim that he was assassinated instead, after having appointed one of his own relatives to an important command in Syria. His reign barely lasted nine months.
Constantine III (-411) was a Roman general serving in Britannia during the last decades of the Western Roman Empire. The provinces of Britain had seen a number of revolts and usurpers rise and fall, and the armies stationed there eventually declared Constantine their new emperor in 407, choosing a leader named after the famed emperor Cosntantine I.<br/><br/> Constantine III crossed the English Channel with the majority of his troops, practically leaving Britain defenceless, and established himself in Gaul. He was recognised as co-emperor by Emperor Honorius in 408, and elevated his own son Constans II to co-emperor in 409. He marched into Italy, but faced by mutinous generals and great barbarian hordes, he soon found his position untenable.<br/><br/> Constans II was captured and executed in 411, and Constantine III soon found himself besieged in Arles by future co-emperor Constantius III. Constantine attempted to surrender and was promised safe passage, but was swiftly imprisoned and beheaded on Constantius' orders.
Valens (328-378) was the brother of Valentinian, and lived in his brother's shadow for many years. When his brother was appointed emperor in 364 CE, he chose Valens to serve as co-emperor, obtaining the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. Valens made Constantinople his capital.<br/><br/> Valens was soon presented with a usurper named Procopius in 365, a surviving relative of Emperor Julian who proclaimed himself emperor in Constantinople while Valens was away. He managed to defeat Procopius in the spring of 366, executing the usurper. He then warred against the revolting Goths, before heading back east to face the Sassanid Empire. A resurgent Gothic presence, alongside Huns and Alans, led to the commencement of the Gothic War, after an attempted resettlement of Goths had resulted in them revolting in 377.<br/><br/> Rather than wait for his nephew and co-emperor Gratian to arrive with reinforcements as advised by many, Valens marched out on his own. Valens was struck down during the decisive but avoidable Battle of Adrianople. He was known by some as the 'Last True Roman', and the battle that resulted in his death was considered the beginning of the collapse of the decaying Western Roman Empire.
Julian (331-363), also known as Julian the Apostate, was a member of the Constantinian Dynasty and cousin to Emperor Constantius II. Emperor Constantius II made him Caesar of the western provinces in 355 CE while he was busy fighting the Sassanid Empire in the east, entrusting Julian against the Alamanni and Franks.<br/><br/> Julian was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers in 360 CE, and Constantius II died in 361 CE while marching to face him. Constantius claimed Julian as his rightful successor on his deathbed however. Unlike his recent predecessors, Julian was not a Christian or did not possess any Christian sympathies, returning the traditional religious practices of Rome to the detriment of Christianity and Judaism, resulting in him being named Julian the Apostate.<br/><br/> Julian died in 363 CE during his ambitious campaign against the Sassanid Empire, after he was mortally wounded in battle. He became the last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire, and the last of the Constantinian Dynasty.
The largest Roman imperial cameo to have survived, the Great Cameo of France is engraved with fwenty-four figures from the Julio-Claudian dynasty.</br/><br/> The upper levels of the cameo show deceased and/or deified members of the dynasty, such as Divus Augustus (Augustus Caesar), Drusus the Younger (son of Tiberius Caesar) and Drusus the Elder (brother of Tiberius Caesar). The middle tier shows Tiberius Caesar alongside his mother Livia Drusilla (wife of Augustus Caesar) and his designated heir Germanicus. Behind Tiberius and Livius are Claudius Caesar (who was emperor when the cameo was made) and his fourth wife Agrippina the Younger.
Claudius was the first Roman emperor to be born outside of Italy, and he was ostracised and exempted from public office for much of his life due to slight deafness and being afflicted with a limp. It was his infirmity that would save him from the noble purges that occurred during the reigns of Tiberius and Caligula, as he was not seen as a serious threat.<br/><br/> Due to being the last surviving man of the Julio-Claudian family, Claudius was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard after their assassination of Caligula. Despite his only previous experience being sharing a consulship with his nephew Caligula in 37 CE, he proved to be a capable administrator, as well as an ambitious builder across the Empire. The conquest of Britain began under his reign, and his seeming vulnerability meant that Claudius often had to shore up his position, usually through the deaths of rival senators and nobles.<br/><br/> He was succeeded after his death in 54 CE by his adopted son, Nero.
Statilia Messalina (35- after 68 CE) was a Roman patrician woman, empress and third wife to Nero. She was married to consul Marrcus Julius Vestinus Atticus, and became Nero's mistress in 65 CE. After the death of Nero's second wife Poppaea Sabina, possibly at his hands, Vestinus was forced by the emperor to commit suicide so that he could marry Statilia. She was one of the few courtiers to survive the collapse of Nero's reign, dying some time after 68 CE.
Born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, Nero was the only son of Agrippina the Younger, who would later marry his great-uncle Emperor Claudius. Claudius adopted Nero and was made heir and successor alongside Claudius' own son Brittanicus. Nero acceded to the throne after Claudius' death in 54 CE, possibly poisoned at the hands of Nero's mother.<br/><br/> Nero's reign is infamous for his corruption, tyranny and extravagance, as well as his many executions, including that of his mother and the poisoning of his stepbrother Britannicus soon after the start of his rule. His most infamous mark on history however, is his presumed starting of the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE, which caused widespread destruction and was intentionally done to clear space for Nero's planned palatial complex, the Domus Aurea.<br/><br/> In 68 CE, Nero was driven from the throne by rebellion, and he committed suicide that same year. With his death came the the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, leading to the tumultuous period known as the Year of the Four Emperors.
Vipsania Agrippina (36 BCE - 20 CE) was betrothed to Tiberius by her father, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, and Octavian before her first birthday. They were married in 19 BCE. Their son, Drusus Julius Caesar, was born in 14 BCE. However, Tiberius was forced to divorce Vipsania and marry Augustus' daughter, Julia the Elder, in 11 BCE, an action that he never ceased to regret all his life. She was remarried to senator Gaius Asinius Gallus Saloninus that same year, with whom she had at least six sons. Vipsania eventually passed away in 20 CE.
Born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, Nero was the only son of Agrippina the Younger, who would later marry his great-uncle Emperor Claudius. Claudius adopted Nero and was made heir and successor alongside Claudius' own son Brittanicus. Nero acceded to the throne after Claudius' death in 54 CE, possibly poisoned at the hands of Nero's mother.<br/><br/> Nero's reign is infamous for his corruption, tyranny and extravagance, as well as his many executions, including that of his mother and the poisoning of his stepbrother Britannicus soon after the start of his rule. His most infamous mark on history however, is his presumed starting of the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE, which caused widespread destruction and was intentionally done to clear space for Nero's planned palatial complex, the Domus Aurea.<br/><br/> In 68 CE, Nero was driven from the throne by rebellion, and he committed suicide that same year. With his death came the the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, leading to the tumultuous period known as the Year of the Four Emperors.
Born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, Nero was the only son of Agrippina the Younger, who would later marry his great-uncle Emperor Claudius. Claudius adopted Nero and was made heir and successor alongside Claudius' own son Brittanicus. Nero acceded to the throne after Claudius' death in 54 CE, possibly poisoned at the hands of Nero's mother.<br/><br/> Nero's reign is infamous for his corruption, tyranny and extravagance, as well as his many executions, including that of his mother and the poisoning of his stepbrother Britannicus soon after the start of his rule. His most infamous mark on history however, is his presumed starting of the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE, which caused widespread destruction and was intentionally done to clear space for Nero's planned palatial complex, the Domus Aurea.<br/><br/> In 68 CE, Nero was driven from the throne by rebellion, and he committed suicide that same year. With his death came the the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, leading to the tumultuous period known as the Year of the Four Emperors.
Born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, Nero was the only son of Agrippina the Younger, who would later marry his great-uncle Emperor Claudius. Claudius adopted Nero and was made heir and successor alongside Claudius' own son Brittanicus. Nero acceded to the throne after Claudius' death in 54 CE, possibly poisoned at the hands of Nero's mother.<br/><br/> Nero's reign is infamous for his corruption, tyranny and extravagance, as well as his many executions, including that of his mother and the poisoning of his stepbrother Britannicus soon after the start of his rule. His most infamous mark on history however, is his presumed starting of the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE, which caused widespread destruction and was intentionally done to clear space for Nero's planned palatial complex, the Domus Aurea.<br/><br/> In 68 CE, Nero was driven from the throne by rebellion, and he committed suicide that same year. With his death came the the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, leading to the tumultuous period known as the Year of the Four Emperors.
Born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, Nero was the only son of Agrippina the Younger, who would later marry his great-uncle Emperor Claudius. Claudius adopted Nero and was made heir and successor alongside Claudius' own son Brittanicus. Nero acceded to the throne after Claudius' death in 54 CE, possibly poisoned at the hands of Nero's mother.<br/><br/> Nero's reign is infamous for his corruption, tyranny and extravagance, as well as his many executions, including that of his mother and the poisoning of his stepbrother Britannicus soon after the start of his rule. His most infamous mark on history however, is his presumed starting of the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE, which caused widespread destruction and was intentionally done to clear space for Nero's planned palatial complex, the Domus Aurea.<br/><br/> In 68 CE, Nero was driven from the throne by rebellion, and he committed suicide that same year. With his death came the the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, leading to the tumultuous period known as the Year of the Four Emperors.
The Great Fire of Rome was an urban fire started between 18-19 July, 64 CE, during the reign of Emperor Nero. It caused widespread destruction throughout the city, burning for over six days. Many accounts claim that Nero was responsible for initiating the fire, to create space to build his new palatial complex, the Domus Aurea.<br/><br/> In response to the accusations, Nero blamed the fire on Rome's Christian community, resulting in the first organised persecution against Christianity in the empire.
The Great Fire of Rome was an urban fire started between 18-19 July, 64 CE, during the reign of Emperor Nero. It caused widespread destruction throughout the city, burning for over six days. Many accounts claim that Nero was responsible for initiating the fire, to create space to build his new palatial complex, the Domus Aurea.<br/><br/> In response to the accusations, Nero blamed the fire on Rome's Christian community, resulting in the first organised persecution against Christianity in the empire.
Claudius was the first Roman emperor to be born outside of Italy, and he was ostracised and exempted from public office for much of his life due to slight deafness and being afflicted with a limp. It was his infirmity that would save him from the noble purges that occurred during the reigns of Tiberius and Caligula, as he was not seen as a serious threat.<br/><br/> Due to being the last surviving man of the Julio-Claudian family, Claudius was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard after their assassination of Caligula. Despite his only previous experience being sharing a consulship with his nephew Caligula in 37 CE, he proved to be a capable administrator, as well as an ambitious builder across the Empire. The conquest of Britain began under his reign, and his seeming vulnerability meant that Claudius often had to shore up his position, usually through the deaths of rival senators and nobles.<br/><br/> He was succeeded after his death in 54 CE by his adopted son, Nero.
The Geography (Greek: Γεωγραφικὴ Ὑφήγησις, Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis, lit. 'Geographical Guidance'), also known by its Latin names as the Geographia and the Cosmographia, is a gazeteer, an atlas, and a treatise on cartography, compiling the geographical knowledge of the 2nd-century Roman Empire.<br/><br/> Originally written by Ptolemy in Greek at Alexandria around 150 CE, the work was a revision of a now-lost atlas by Marinus of Tyre using additional Roman and Persian gazetteers and new principles. Its translation into Arabic in the 9th century and Latin in 1406 was highly influential on the geographical knowledge and cartographic traditions of the medieval Caliphate and Renaissance Europe.
Tacitus (200-276 CE) was born in Interamna (Terni), Italia, and worked for much of his long life in various civil offices, including a term as consul in 273, earning him much universal respect. When Aurelian was assassinated by the Praetorian Guard, Tacitus was chosen as his successor after a brief interregnum by the Roman Senate, the last time the Senate would elect an emperor.<br/><br/> Tacitus' brief reign saw him fight against barbarian mercenaries that had been serving under Aurelian but had broken away to plunder several towns in the Eastern Roman provinces after the previous emperor's death. He then turned his attention to a resurgent Alammanic and Frankish invasion in the province of Gaul, but died of fever on the march westwards. Some other accounts claim that he was assassinated instead, after having appointed one of his own relatives to an important command in Syria. His reign barely lasted nine months.
John (24 December 1166 – 19 October 1216), also known as John Lackland (Norman French: Johan sanz Terre), was King of England from 6 April 1199 until his death in 1216. John lost the Duchy of Normandy to King Philip II of France, resulting in the collapse of most of the Angevin Empire and contributing to the subsequent growth in power of the Capetian dynasty during the 13th century.<br/><br/> The baronial revolt at the end of John's reign led to the sealing of Magna Carta, a document of immense significance considered to be an early step in the evolution of the constitution of the United Kingdom.
Claudius was the first Roman emperor to be born outside of Italy, and he was ostracised and exempted from public office for much of his life due to slight deafness and being afflicted with a limp. It was his infirmity that would save him from the noble purges that occurred during the reigns of Tiberius and Caligula, as he was not seen as a serious threat.<br/><br/> Due to being the last surviving man of the Julio-Claudian family, Claudius was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard after their assassination of Caligula. Despite his only previous experience being sharing a consulship with his nephew Caligula in 37 CE, he proved to be a capable administrator, as well as an ambitious builder across the Empire. The conquest of Britain began under his reign, and his seeming vulnerability meant that Claudius often had to shore up his position, usually through the deaths of rival senators and nobles.<br/><br/> He was succeeded after his death in 54 CE by his adopted son, Nero.
Born Tiberius Claudius Nero, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla, he became step-son of Octavian (later to become Augustus, first emperor of Rome) after his mother was forced to divorce Nero and marry him.<br/><br/> Tiberius would eventually marry Augustus' daughter from his previous marriage, Julia the Elder, and later be adopted by Augustus, officially becoming a Julian, bearing the name Tiberius Julius Caesar.<br/><br/> In relations to the other emperors of this dynasty, Tiberius was the stepson of Augustus, grand-uncle of Caligula, paternal uncle of Claudius, and great-grand uncle of Nero.<br/><br/> Tiberius was one of Rome's greatest generals, with his conquest of Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and temporarily, parts of Germania, creating the foundations for the empire's northern frontier. However, he came to be known as a dark, reclusive, and sombre ruler who never really desired to be emperor; Pliny the Elder called him <i>tristissimus hominum</i>, 'the gloomiest of men'.
Quintillus (212-270) was born at Sirmium to a low-born family, only coming to any prominence when his brother Claudius II Gothicus became emperor in 268. When Claudius II died two years later in 270, Quintillus was declared his successor, either by the Roman Senate or by his brother's soldiers.<br/><br/> The exact dates and length of Quintillus' reign are contradictory, lasting anything from 17 to 177 days. Similarly, the cause of his death is unknown, with some sources stating that he was murdered by his own soldiers for his strict military discipline, while others report him being killed in battle against rival claimant Aurelian. Still some sources claim that he committed suicide.<br/><br/> What few records remain of him claim Quintillus to be a moderate and capable ruler, a champion of the Senate and spiritual successor to previous Emperors Galba and Pertinax.
Claudius was the first Roman emperor to be born outside of Italy, and he was ostracised and exempted from public office for much of his life due to slight deafness and being afflicted with a limp. It was his infirmity that would save him from the noble purges that occurred during the reigns of Tiberius and Caligula, as he was not seen as a serious threat.<br/><br/> Due to being the last surviving man of the Julio-Claudian family, Claudius was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard after their assassination of Caligula. Despite his only previous experience being sharing a consulship with his nephew Caligula in 37 CE, he proved to be a capable administrator, as well as an ambitious builder across the Empire. The conquest of Britain began under his reign, and his seeming vulnerability meant that Claudius often had to shore up his position, usually through the deaths of rival senators and nobles.<br/><br/> He was succeeded after his death in 54 CE by his adopted son, Nero.
Charlemagne (2 April 742 – 28 January 814 CE), also known as Charles the Great (Latin: Carolus or Karolus Magnus, French: Charles Le Grand or Charlemagne, German: Karl der Grosse, Italian: Carlo Magno or Carlomagno) or Charles I, was King of the Franks who united most of Western Europe during the Middle Ages and laid the foundations for modern France and Germany. He took the Frankish throne from 768 and became King of Italy from 774. From 800 he became the first Holy Roman Emperor - the first recognized Roman emperor in Western Europe since the collapse of the Western Roman Empire three centuries earlier. The expanded Frankish state he founded is called the Carolingian Empire.<br/><br/> Maugris or Maugis was one of the heroes of the <i>chansons de geste</i> and romances of chivalry and the 'Matter of France' that tell of the legendary court of King Charlemagne. Maugis was cousin to Renaud de Montauban and his brothers, son of Beuves of Aygremont and brother to Vivien de Monbranc. He was brought up by Oriande the fairy, and became a great enchanter. He won the magical horse Bayard and the sword Froberge which he later gave to Renaud.
Claudius II (210-270), also known as Claudius Gothicus, was of Illyrian origin and barbarian birth. He was a career soldier, having served his entire adult life in the Roman army. He was a military tribune in Emperor Gallienus' army during the siege of Milan in 268 when Gallienus was murdered by his own ofifcials, possibly including Claudius. Claudius was then proclaimed emperor by his own soldiers, possibly because of his physical strength and cruelty.<br/><br/> Claudius, like the previous barbarian emperor Maximinus Thrax, was a soldier-emperor, the first in a series that would restore the Empire from the disaster that had been the Crisis of the Third Century. The Empire had been divided into three different entities under the reign of Gallienus, with the Gallic Empire in the West and Palmyrene Empire in the East. Claudius, however, focused his immediate attentions on dealing with foreign invaders, defeating the Goths during the Battle of Naissus in one of the greatest victories in Roman history, earning him the surname 'Gothicus' (conquerer of the Goths).<br/><br/> He then turned his attention to the Gallic Empire, winning several victories and regaining control of Hispania and parts of Gaul. He was killed by the Plague of Cyprian in January 270 before he could finish off the Gallic Empire however, naming Aurelian as his successor.
Claudius was the first Roman emperor to be born outside of Italy, and he was ostracised and exempted from public office for much of his life due to slight deafness and being afflicted with a limp. It was his infirmity that would save him from the noble purges that occurred during the reigns of Tiberius and Caligula, as he was not seen as a serious threat.<br/><br/> Due to being the last surviving man of the Julio-Claudian family, Claudius was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard after their assassination of Caligula. Despite his only previous experience being sharing a consulship with his nephew Caligula in 37 CE, he proved to be a capable administrator, as well as an ambitious builder across the Empire. The conquest of Britain began under his reign, and his seeming vulnerability meant that Claudius often had to shore up his position, usually through the deaths of rival senators and nobles.<br/><br/> He was succeeded after his death in 54 CE by his adopted son, Nero.
Aelia Paetina (1st century CE) was the second wife of Claudius Caesar, marrying him in 28 CE before he became emperor. They had one child together, Claudia Antonia, born in 30 CE. Claudius divorced her a year later in 31 CE, after her adoptive brother fell from power and was murdered. After Claudius' third wife Valeria Messalina was executed in 48 CE for trying to usurp the throne, it was suggested by some of his advisors that Claudius remarry Paetina, but ultimately Claudius married Agrippina the Younger instead.
Palmyra was an ancient city in Syria. It was an important city in central Syria, located in an oasis 215 km northeast of Damascus and 180 km southwest of the Euphrates at Deir ez-Zor. It had long been a vital caravan city for travellers crossing the Syrian desert and was known as the Bride of the Desert.<br/><br/> The earliest documented reference to the city by its Semitic name Tadmor, Tadmur or Tudmur (which means 'the town that repels' in Amorite and 'the indomitable town' in Aramaic) is recorded in Babylonian tablets found in Mari.
Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus (September AD 129 – 199/217; Greek: Γαληνός, Galēnos, better known as Galen of Pergamon (modern-day Bergama, Turkey), was a prominent Roman (of Greek ethnicity) physician, surgeon and philosopher.<br/><br/> Arguably the most accomplished of all medical researchers of antiquity, Galen contributed greatly to the understanding of numerous scientific disciplines, including anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, and neurology, as well as philosophy and logic.
Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus (September AD 129 – 199/217; Greek: Γαληνός, Galēnos, better known as Galen of Pergamon (modern-day Bergama, Turkey), was a prominent Roman (of Greek ethnicity) physician, surgeon and philosopher.<br/><br/> Arguably the most accomplished of all medical researchers of antiquity, Galen contributed greatly to the understanding of numerous scientific disciplines, including anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, and neurology, as well as philosophy and logic.