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Theodosius II (401-450), also known as Theodosius the Younger and Theodosius the Calligrapher, was the son of Emperor Arcadius of the Eastern Roman Empire. He was proclaimed co-ruler and Augustus a year after his birth, becoming the youngest person to ever bear the title. He became emperor after his father's death in 408 CE, aged only seven.<br/><br/> His older sister Pulcheria briefly assumed regency as Augusta until Theodosius was old enough in 416 CE. Theodosius was a devout Christian, waging wars against the Sassanids and others who persecuted Christianity. He also had to deal with the Huns under Attila, forced to constantly pay them off to maintain peace.<br/><br/> Theodosius was also known for promulgating the Theodosian law code and for his founding of the University of Constantinople. Theodosius eventually died in 450 CE from a riding accident, leading to a power struggle between his sister Pulcheria and the eunuch Chrysaphius.
The Orient Express was the name of a long-distance passenger train service created in 1883 by Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits (CIWL).<br/><br/> The route and rolling stock of the Orient Express changed many times. Several routes in the past concurrently used the Orient Express name, or slight variants thereof. Although the original Orient Express was simply a normal international railway service, the name has become synonymous with intrigue and luxury travel. The two city names most prominently associated with the Orient Express are Paris and Constantinople (Istanbul), the original endpoints of the timetabled service.<br/><br/> The Orient Express was a showcase of luxury and comfort at a time when travelling was still rough and dangerous. CIWL soon developed a dense network of luxury trains all over Europe, whose names are still remembered today and associated with the art of luxury travel (such as the Blue Train, the Golden Arrow, North Express and many more). CIWL became the first and most important modern multinational dedicated to transport, travel agency, and hospitality with activities spreading from Europe to Asia and Africa.
The Orient Express was the name of a long-distance passenger train service created in 1883 by Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits (CIWL).<br/><br/> The route and rolling stock of the Orient Express changed many times. Several routes in the past concurrently used the Orient Express name, or slight variants thereof. Although the original Orient Express was simply a normal international railway service, the name has become synonymous with intrigue and luxury travel. The two city names most prominently associated with the Orient Express are Paris and Constantinople (Istanbul), the original endpoints of the timetabled service.<br/><br/> The Orient Express was a showcase of luxury and comfort at a time when travelling was still rough and dangerous. CIWL soon developed a dense network of luxury trains all over Europe, whose names are still remembered today and associated with the art of luxury travel (such as the Blue Train, the Golden Arrow, North Express and many more). CIWL became the first and most important modern multinational dedicated to transport, travel agency, and hospitality with activities spreading from Europe to Asia and Africa.
Istanbul's Hagia Sophia (Greek) or Ayasofya (Turkish) was originally constructed as a main Eastern Orthodox church and served in this role from 537 CE until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 (except between 1204 and 1261 when it was converted by the Fourth Crusaders to a Roman Catholic cathedral).<br/><br/> When the Ottoman Turks under Mehmed II conquered Constantinople, the Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque and Christian relics and art were either removed or plastered over. It remained a mosque for almost 500 years, before being converted into a museum between 1931 and 1935.<br/><br/> Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and influenced the design of numerous mosques in what is now Istanbul.
The Orient Express was the name of a long-distance passenger train service created in 1883 by Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits (CIWL).<br/><br/> The route and rolling stock of the Orient Express changed many times. Several routes in the past concurrently used the Orient Express name, or slight variants thereof. Although the original Orient Express was simply a normal international railway service, the name has become synonymous with intrigue and luxury travel. The two city names most prominently associated with the Orient Express are Paris and Constantinople (Istanbul), the original endpoints of the timetabled service.<br/><br/> The Orient Express was a showcase of luxury and comfort at a time when travelling was still rough and dangerous. CIWL soon developed a dense network of luxury trains all over Europe, whose names are still remembered today and associated with the art of luxury travel (such as the Blue Train, the Golden Arrow, North Express and many more). CIWL became the first and most important modern multinational dedicated to transport, travel agency, and hospitality with activities spreading from Europe to Asia and Africa.
Istanbul's Hagia Sophia (Greek) or Ayasofya (Turkish) was originally constructed as a main Eastern Orthodox church and served in this role from 537 CE until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 (except between 1204 and 1261 when it was converted by the Fourth Crusaders to a Roman Catholic cathedral).<br/><br/> When the Ottoman Turks under Mehmed II conquered Constantinople, the Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque and Christian relics and art were either removed or plastered over. It remained a mosque for almost 500 years, before being converted into a museum between 1931 and 1935.<br/><br/> Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and influenced the design of numerous mosques in what is now Istanbul.
Istanbul's Hagia Sophia (Greek) or Ayasofya (Turkish) was originally constructed as a main Eastern Orthodox church and served in this role from 537 CE until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 (except between 1204 and 1261 when it was converted by the Fourth Crusaders to a Roman Catholic cathedral).<br/><br/> When the Ottoman Turks under Mehmed II conquered Constantinople, the Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque and Christian relics and art were either removed or plastered over. It remained a mosque for almost 500 years, before being converted into a museum between 1931 and 1935.<br/><br/> Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and influenced the design of numerous mosques in what is now Istanbul.
Istanbul's Hagia Sophia (Greek) or Ayasofya (Turkish) was originally constructed as a main Eastern Orthodox church and served in this role from 537 CE until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 (except between 1204 and 1261 when it was converted by the Fourth Crusaders to a Roman Catholic cathedral).<br/><br/> When the Ottoman Turks under Mehmed II conquered Constantinople, the Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque and Christian relics and art were either removed or plastered over. It remained a mosque for almost 500 years, before being converted into a museum between 1931 and 1935.<br/><br/> Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and influenced the design of numerous mosques in what is now Istanbul.
The Orient Express was the name of a long-distance passenger train service created in 1883 by Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits (CIWL).<br/><br/> The route and rolling stock of the Orient Express changed many times. Several routes in the past concurrently used the Orient Express name, or slight variants thereof. Although the original Orient Express was simply a normal international railway service, the name has become synonymous with intrigue and luxury travel. The two city names most prominently associated with the Orient Express are Paris and Constantinople (Istanbul), the original endpoints of the timetabled service.<br/><br/> The Orient Express was a showcase of luxury and comfort at a time when travelling was still rough and dangerous. CIWL soon developed a dense network of luxury trains all over Europe, whose names are still remembered today and associated with the art of luxury travel (such as the Blue Train, the Golden Arrow, North Express and many more). CIWL became the first and most important modern multinational dedicated to transport, travel agency, and hospitality with activities spreading from Europe to Asia and Africa.
An interior view of the Hagia Sophia in 1852, when it was known as the Ayasofya Mosque. The building was originally constructed as a main Eastern Orthodox church and served in this role from 537 CE until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 (except between 1204 and 1261 when it was converted by the Fourth Crusaders to a Roman Catholic cathedral).<br/><br/> When the Ottoman Turks under Mehmed II conquered Constantinople, the Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque and Christian relics and art were either removed or plastered over. It remained a mosque for almost 500 years, before being converted into a museum between 1931 and 1935.<br/><br/> Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and influenced the design of numerous mosques in what is now Istanbul.
Istanbul's Hagia Sophia (Greek) or Ayasofya (Turkish) was originally constructed as a main Eastern Orthodox church and served in this role from 537 CE until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 (except between 1204 and 1261 when it was converted by the Fourth Crusaders to a Roman Catholic cathedral).<br/><br/> When the Ottoman Turks under Mehmed II conquered Constantinople, the Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque and Christian relics and art were either removed or plastered over. It remained a mosque for almost 500 years, before being converted into a museum between 1931 and 1935.<br/><br/> Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and influenced the design of numerous mosques in what is now Istanbul.
The Orient Express was the name of a long-distance passenger train service created in 1883 by Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits (CIWL).<br/><br/> The route and rolling stock of the Orient Express changed many times. Several routes in the past concurrently used the Orient Express name, or slight variants thereof. Although the original Orient Express was simply a normal international railway service, the name has become synonymous with intrigue and luxury travel. The two city names most prominently associated with the Orient Express are Paris and Constantinople (Istanbul), the original endpoints of the timetabled service.<br/><br/> The Orient Express was a showcase of luxury and comfort at a time when travelling was still rough and dangerous. CIWL soon developed a dense network of luxury trains all over Europe, whose names are still remembered today and associated with the art of luxury travel (such as the Blue Train, the Golden Arrow, North Express and many more). CIWL became the first and most important modern multinational dedicated to transport, travel agency, and hospitality with activities spreading from Europe to Asia and Africa.
Istanbul's Hagia Sophia (Greek) or Ayasofya (Turkish) was originally constructed as a main Eastern Orthodox church and served in this role from 537 CE until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 (except between 1204 and 1261 when it was converted by the Fourth Crusaders to a Roman Catholic cathedral).<br/><br/> When the Ottoman Turks under Mehmed II conquered Constantinople, the Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque and Christian relics and art were either removed or plastered over. It remained a mosque for almost 500 years, before being converted into a museum between 1931 and 1935.<br/><br/> Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and influenced the design of numerous mosques in what is now Istanbul.
The Orient Express was the name of a long-distance passenger train service created in 1883 by Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits (CIWL).<br/><br/> The route and rolling stock of the Orient Express changed many times. Several routes in the past concurrently used the Orient Express name, or slight variants thereof. Although the original Orient Express was simply a normal international railway service, the name has become synonymous with intrigue and luxury travel. The two city names most prominently associated with the Orient Express are Paris and Constantinople (Istanbul), the original endpoints of the timetabled service.<br/><br/> The Orient Express was a showcase of luxury and comfort at a time when travelling was still rough and dangerous. CIWL soon developed a dense network of luxury trains all over Europe, whose names are still remembered today and associated with the art of luxury travel (such as the Blue Train, the Golden Arrow, North Express and many more). CIWL became the first and most important modern multinational dedicated to transport, travel agency, and hospitality with activities spreading from Europe to Asia and Africa.
Istanbul's Hagia Sophia (Greek) or Ayasofya (Turkish) was originally constructed as a main Eastern Orthodox church and served in this role from 537 CE until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 (except between 1204 and 1261 when it was converted by the Fourth Crusaders to a Roman Catholic cathedral).<br/><br/> When the Ottoman Turks under Mehmed II conquered Constantinople, the Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque and Christian relics and art were either removed or plastered over. It remained a mosque for almost 500 years, before being converted into a museum between 1931 and 1935.<br/><br/> Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and influenced the design of numerous mosques in what is now Istanbul.
The Orient Express was the name of a long-distance passenger train service created in 1883 by Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits (CIWL).<br/><br/> The route and rolling stock of the Orient Express changed many times. Several routes in the past concurrently used the Orient Express name, or slight variants thereof. Although the original Orient Express was simply a normal international railway service, the name has become synonymous with intrigue and luxury travel. The two city names most prominently associated with the Orient Express are Paris and Constantinople (Istanbul), the original endpoints of the timetabled service.<br/><br/> The Orient Express was a showcase of luxury and comfort at a time when travelling was still rough and dangerous. CIWL soon developed a dense network of luxury trains all over Europe, whose names are still remembered today and associated with the art of luxury travel (such as the Blue Train, the Golden Arrow, North Express and many more). CIWL became the first and most important modern multinational dedicated to transport, travel agency, and hospitality with activities spreading from Europe to Asia and Africa.
Istanbul's Hagia Sophia (Greek) or Ayasofya (Turkish) was originally constructed as a main Eastern Orthodox church and served in this role from 537 CE until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 (except between 1204 and 1261 when it was converted by the Fourth Crusaders to a Roman Catholic cathedral).<br/><br/> When the Ottoman Turks under Mehmed II conquered Constantinople, the Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque and Christian relics and art were either removed or plastered over. It remained a mosque for almost 500 years, before being converted into a museum between 1931 and 1935.<br/><br/> Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and influenced the design of numerous mosques in what is now Istanbul.
In Genesis 18 three beings, considered to have been angels appearing as men, came to Abraham in the plains of Mamre. After the angels received the hospitality of Abraham and Sarah, his wife, God revealed to Abraham that he would destroy Sodom and Gomorrah, 'because their sin is very grievous'.<br/><br/> In response, Abraham inquired of God if he would spare the city if 50 righteous people were found in it, to which God agreed he would not destroy it for the sake of the righteous yet dwelling therein. Two angels were sent to Sodom to investigate and were met by Abraham's nephew Lot, who convinced the angels to lodge with him, and they ate with Lot.
Probably born in Venice around 1254 CE, Marco Polo was raised by his aunt and uncle after his mother died. His father, Niccolo, was a Venetian merchant who left before Marco was born to trade in the Middle East. Niccolo and his brother Maffeo passed through much of Asia and met with Mongol emperor Kublai Khan who reportedly invited them to be ambassadors. In 1269, Niccolo and Maffeo returned to Venice, meeting Marco for the first time.<br/><br/> In 1271, Marco Polo, aged 17, with his father and his uncle, set off for Asia, travelling through Constantinople, Baghdad, Persia, Kashgar, China and Burma. They returned to Venice 24 years and 15,000 miles later with many riches. Upon their return, Venice was at war with Genoa, and Marco Polo was imprisoned. He spent the few months of his imprisonment dictating his adventures to a fellow inmate, Rustichello da Pisa, who incorporated the tales into a book he called 'The Travels of Marco Polo'. The book documented the use of paper money and the burning of coal, and opened European eyes to the wonders of the East.
One of the author pictures from the Vienna Dioscorides (fol. 5 verso). The allegorical figure Epinoia (thinking power) holds a Mandragoa. The painter creates an image and Dioscorides (right) describes the plant.<br/><br/> The Vienna Dioscurides or Vienna Dioscorides is an early 6th century illuminated manuscript of De Materia Medica by Dioscorides in Greek. It is an important and rare example of a late antique scientific text. The 491 vellum folios measure 37 by 30 cm and contain more than 400 pictures of animals and plants, most done in a naturalistic style.<br/><br/> In addition to the text by Dioscorides, the manuscript has appended to it the Carmen de herbis attributed to Rufus, a paraphrase of an ornithological treatise by a certain Dionysius, usually identified with Dionysius of Philadelphia, and a paraphrase of Nicander's treatise on the treatment of snake bites.<br/><br/> The manuscript was created in about 515 and was made for the Byzantine princess Juliana Anicia, the daughter of Emperor Anicius Olybrius. Although it was originally created as a luxury copy, there is some indication that in later centuries it was used daily as a hospital textbook. It includes some annotations in Arabic.<br/><br/> The manuscript was discovered in Istanbul in the 1560s by the Flemish diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq who was in the employ of Emperor Ferdinand I. The Emperor bought the manuscript and it is now held in the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek in Vienna. The manuscript was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme Register in 1997 in recognition of its historical significance.
The Greek translation reads in English: Here is recorded the work of Dioscorides from Pedanios Anazarbos concerning plants, roots, seeds, juice, leaves and remedies. We therefore begin the sequence with the letter alpha ('A').<br/><br/> The Vienna Dioscurides or Vienna Dioscorides is an early 6th century illuminated manuscript of De Materia Medica by Dioscorides in Greek. It is an important and rare example of a late antique scientific text. The 491 vellum folios measure 37 by 30 cm and contain more than 400 pictures of animals and plants, most done in a naturalistic style.<br/><br/> In addition to the text by Dioscorides, the manuscript has appended to it the Carmen de herbis attributed to Rufus, a paraphrase of an ornithological treatise by a certain Dionysius, usually identified with Dionysius of Philadelphia, and a paraphrase of Nicander's treatise on the treatment of snake bites.<br/><br/> The manuscript was created in about 515 and was made for the Byzantine princess Juliana Anicia, the daughter of Emperor Anicius Olybrius. Although it was originally created as a luxury copy, there is some indication that in later centuries it was used daily as a hospital textbook. It includes some annotations in Arabic.<br/><br/> The manuscript was discovered in Istanbul in the 1560s by the Flemish diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq who was in the employ of Emperor Ferdinand I. The Emperor bought the manuscript and it is now held in the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek in Vienna. The manuscript was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme Register in 1997 in recognition of its historical significance.
One of the author pictures from the Vienna Dioscorides (fol. 5 verso). The allegorical figure Epinoia (thinking power) holds a Mandragoa. The painter creates an image and Dioscorides (right) describes the plant.<br/><br/> The Vienna Dioscurides or Vienna Dioscorides is an early 6th century illuminated manuscript of De Materia Medica by Dioscorides in Greek. It is an important and rare example of a late antique scientific text. The 491 vellum folios measure 37 by 30 cm and contain more than 400 pictures of animals and plants, most done in a naturalistic style.<br/><br/> In addition to the text by Dioscorides, the manuscript has appended to it the Carmen de herbis attributed to Rufus, a paraphrase of an ornithological treatise by a certain Dionysius, usually identified with Dionysius of Philadelphia, and a paraphrase of Nicander's treatise on the treatment of snake bites.<br/><br/> The manuscript was created in about 515 and was made for the Byzantine princess Juliana Anicia, the daughter of Emperor Anicius Olybrius. Although it was originally created as a luxury copy, there is some indication that in later centuries it was used daily as a hospital textbook. It includes some annotations in Arabic.<br/><br/> The manuscript was discovered in Istanbul in the 1560s by the Flemish diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq who was in the employ of Emperor Ferdinand I. The Emperor bought the manuscript and it is now held in the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek in Vienna. The manuscript was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme Register in 1997 in recognition of its historical significance.
The first author picture from the Vienna Dioscorides (fol. 4 verso): Heuresis (the personification of discovery) presents the physician Dioscorides Pedanios with a mandrake root. Since these should emit a deadly scream when harvested, they werepulled out of the ground by a dog. Heurensis therefore has the dead animal lying at her feet.<br/><br/> The Vienna Dioscurides or Vienna Dioscorides is an early 6th century illuminated manuscript of De Materia Medica by Dioscorides in Greek. It is an important and rare example of a late antique scientific text. The 491 vellum folios measure 37 by 30 cm and contain more than 400 pictures of animals and plants, most done in a naturalistic style.<br/><br/> In addition to the text by Dioscorides, the manuscript has appended to it the Carmen de herbis attributed to Rufus, a paraphrase of an ornithological treatise by a certain Dionysius, usually identified with Dionysius of Philadelphia, and a paraphrase of Nicander's treatise on the treatment of snake bites.<br/><br/> The manuscript was created in about 515 and was made for the Byzantine princess Juliana Anicia, the daughter of Emperor Anicius Olybrius. Although it was originally created as a luxury copy, there is some indication that in later centuries it was used daily as a hospital textbook. It includes some annotations in Arabic.<br/><br/> The manuscript was discovered in Istanbul in the 1560s by the Flemish diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq who was in the employ of Emperor Ferdinand I. The Emperor bought the manuscript and it is now held in the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek in Vienna. The manuscript was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme Register in 1997 in recognition of its historical significance.
The Vienna Dioscurides or Vienna Dioscorides is an early 6th century illuminated manuscript of De Materia Medica by Dioscorides in Greek. It is an important and rare example of a late antique scientific text. The 491 vellum folios measure 37 by 30 cm and contain more than 400 pictures of animals and plants, most done in a naturalistic style.<br/><br/> In addition to the text by Dioscorides, the manuscript has appended to it the Carmen de herbis attributed to Rufus, a paraphrase of an ornithological treatise by a certain Dionysius, usually identified with Dionysius of Philadelphia, and a paraphrase of Nicander's treatise on the treatment of snake bites.<br/><br/> The manuscript was created in about 515 and was made for the Byzantine princess Juliana Anicia, the daughter of Emperor Anicius Olybrius. Although it was originally created as a luxury copy, there is some indication that in later centuries it was used daily as a hospital textbook. It includes some annotations in Arabic.<br/><br/> The manuscript was discovered in Istanbul in the 1560s by the Flemish diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq who was in the employ of Emperor Ferdinand I. The Emperor bought the manuscript and it is now held in the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek in Vienna. The manuscript was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme Register in 1997 in recognition of its historical significance.
A dedication to Juliana Anikias in the Vienna Dioscorides (fol sixth verso). The enthroned princess is flanked by allegorical figures of generosity and wisdom.<br/><br/> The Vienna Dioscurides or Vienna Dioscorides is an early 6th century illuminated manuscript of De Materia Medica by Dioscorides in Greek. It is an important and rare example of a late antique scientific text. The 491 vellum folios measure 37 by 30 cm and contain more than 400 pictures of animals and plants, most done in a naturalistic style.<br/><br/> In addition to the text by Dioscorides, the manuscript has appended to it the Carmen de herbis attributed to Rufus, a paraphrase of an ornithological treatise by a certain Dionysius, usually identified with Dionysius of Philadelphia, and a paraphrase of Nicander's treatise on the treatment of snake bites.<br/><br/> The manuscript was created in about 515 and was made for the Byzantine princess Juliana Anicia, the daughter of Emperor Anicius Olybrius. Although it was originally created as a luxury copy, there is some indication that in later centuries it was used daily as a hospital textbook. It includes some annotations in Arabic.<br/><br/> The manuscript was discovered in Istanbul in the 1560s by the Flemish diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq who was in the employ of Emperor Ferdinand I. The Emperor bought the manuscript and it is now held in the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek in Vienna. The manuscript was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme Register in 1997 in recognition of its historical significance.
The second medical image from the Codex Vienna Dioscorides (Constantinople, 512) named after the top center physician Galen described. Continued clockwise: Pedanios Dioscorides, Nicander (with snake), Ruphos (Rufus) of Ephesus, Andreas (personal physician of Ptolemy IV Philopator), Apollonius (Identification unclear: either Apollonius of Pergamon, Apollonius of Kiton or Apollonius Mys) and Krateuas.<br/><br/> The Vienna Dioscurides or Vienna Dioscorides is an early 6th century illuminated manuscript of De Materia Medica by Dioscorides in Greek. It is an important and rare example of a late antique scientific text. The 491 vellum folios measure 37 by 30 cm and contain more than 400 pictures of animals and plants, most done in a naturalistic style.<br/><br/> In addition to the text by Dioscorides, the manuscript has appended to it the Carmen de herbis attributed to Rufus, a paraphrase of an ornithological treatise by a certain Dionysius, usually identified with Dionysius of Philadelphia, and a paraphrase of Nicander's treatise on the treatment of snake bites.<br/><br/> The manuscript was created in about 515 and was made for the Byzantine princess Juliana Anicia, the daughter of Emperor Anicius Olybrius. Although it was originally created as a luxury copy, there is some indication that in later centuries it was used daily as a hospital textbook. It includes some annotations in Arabic.<br/><br/> The manuscript was discovered in Istanbul in the 1560s by the Flemish diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq who was in the employ of Emperor Ferdinand I. The Emperor bought the manuscript and it is now held in the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek in Vienna. The manuscript was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme Register in 1997 in recognition of its historical significance.
Miniature of a coral from the Carmen de viribus herbarum, a didactic poem on medicinal plants in the Vienna Dioscorides - in ancient times corals were considered to be plants.<br/><br/> The Vienna Dioscurides or Vienna Dioscorides is an early 6th century illuminated manuscript of De Materia Medica by Dioscorides in Greek. It is an important and rare example of a late antique scientific text. The 491 vellum folios measure 37 by 30 cm and contain more than 400 pictures of animals and plants, most done in a naturalistic style.<br/><br/> In addition to the text by Dioscorides, the manuscript has appended to it the Carmen de herbis attributed to Rufus, a paraphrase of an ornithological treatise by a certain Dionysius, usually identified with Dionysius of Philadelphia, and a paraphrase of Nicander's treatise on the treatment of snake bites.<br/><br/> The manuscript was created in about 515 and was made for the Byzantine princess Juliana Anicia, the daughter of Emperor Anicius Olybrius. Although it was originally created as a luxury copy, there is some indication that in later centuries it was used daily as a hospital textbook. It includes some annotations in Arabic.<br/><br/> The manuscript was discovered in Istanbul in the 1560s by the Flemish diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq who was in the employ of Emperor Ferdinand I. The Emperor bought the manuscript and it is now held in the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek in Vienna. The manuscript was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme Register in 1997 in recognition of its historical significance.
Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 329 - 390), also known as Gregory the Theologian or Gregory Nazianzen), 4th-century Archbishop of Constantinople. Gregory of Nazianzus is widely considered the most accomplished rhetorical stylist of the Patristic Age.<br/><br/> As a classically trained speaker and philosopher he infused Hellenism into the early church, establishing the paradigm of Byzantine theologians and church officials. Gregory made a significant impact on the shape of Trinitarian theology among both Greek- and Latin-speaking theologians, and he is remembered as the 'Trinitarian Theologian'. Much of his theological work continues to influence modern theologians, especially in regard to the relationship among the three Persons of the Trinity.<br/><br/> Along with the two brothers, Basil the Great and Gregory of Nyssa, he is known as one of the Cappadocian Fathers. Gregory is a saint in both Eastern and Western Christianity. In the Roman Catholic Church he is numbered among the Doctors of the Church; in Eastern Orthodoxy and the Eastern Catholic Churches he is revered as one of the Three Holy Hierarchs, along with Basil the Great and John Chrysostom.
Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 329 - 390), also known as Gregory the Theologian or Gregory Nazianzen), 4th-century Archbishop of Constantinople. Gregory of Nazianzus is widely considered the most accomplished rhetorical stylist of the Patristic Age.<br/><br/> As a classically trained speaker and philosopher he infused Hellenism into the early church, establishing the paradigm of Byzantine theologians and church officials. Gregory made a significant impact on the shape of Trinitarian theology among both Greek- and Latin-speaking theologians, and he is remembered as the 'Trinitarian Theologian'. Much of his theological work continues to influence modern theologians, especially in regard to the relationship among the three Persons of the Trinity.<br/><br/> Along with the two brothers, Basil the Great and Gregory of Nyssa, he is known as one of the Cappadocian Fathers. Gregory is a saint in both Eastern and Western Christianity. In the Roman Catholic Church he is numbered among the Doctors of the Church; in Eastern Orthodoxy and the Eastern Catholic Churches he is revered as one of the Three Holy Hierarchs, along with Basil the Great and John Chrysostom.
The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, written in 1356/7, became a very popular text, surpassing even the exploits of Marco Polo. The Travels described a journey to Constantinople, Palestine, and Egypt and further routes to Asia Minor, ending at the Great Khan of China. Pictured here is a knightly tournament held in Constantinople. Tournaments were chivalrous competitions based on the mêlée, a general combat where knights formed two competing sides and charged at each other. In the foreground we see a joust, a single contest between two knights. They are clothed in full armor and bearing weapons and shields. The competitor on the left is trying to unseat his opponent with his lance.
Mehmed II (March 30, 1432 – May 3, 1481) or, in modern Turkish, Fatih Sultan Mehmet; known as Mahomet or Mohammed II in early modern Europe) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1444 to September 1446, and later from February 1451 to 1481.<br/><br/> In 1453, at the age of just 21, Mehmed led an Ottoman army in the siege of Constantinople with between 80,000 to 200,000 troops and a navy of 320 vessels, though the bulk of them were transport and store ships. The city was surrounded by sea and land; the fleet at the entrance of the Bosphorus was stretched from shore to shore in the form of a crescent, to intercept or repel any assistance from the sea for the besieged Byzantines.<br/><br/> In early April, the Siege of Constantinople began. After several fruitless assaults, the city's walls held off the Turks with great difficulty, even with the use of the new Orban's bombard, a cannon similar to the Dardanelles Gun. The harbor of the Golden Horn was blocked by a boom chain and defended by 28 warships. On April 22, Mehmed transported his lighter warships overland, around the Genoese colony of Galata and into the Golden Horn's northern shore; 80 galleys were transported from the Bosphorus after paving a little over one-mile route with wood. Thus the Byzantines stretched their troops over a longer portion of the walls. A little over a month later, Constantinople fell on May 29 following a 57-day siege. It was the end of the Byzantine Empire.
The ‘Earthly Paradise’ or Garden of Eden is described in the Book of Genesis as being the place where the first man, Adam, and his wife, Eve, lived after they were created by God.<br/><br/> According to the Book of Genesis, which is the first book of the Christian Old Testament or Hebrew Bible, God created the universe in seven days. On the sixth day, he created ‘Adam’, the Hebrew word for ‘man’, and placed him in Paradise—the Garden of Eden. From one of Adam’s ribs, God then created a mate for him: Eve, meaning ‘Mother of Life’. Adam and Eve were permitted to eat all the fruit in the garden except that from the ‘Tree of Knowledge’. However, the devil, disguised as a serpent, persuaded Eve to eat the forbidden fruit—an apple—and she gave in to the temptation. This was considered mankind’s first sin.
The Nuremberg Chronicle is an illustrated world history. Its structure follows the story of human history as related in the Bible; it includes the histories of a number of important Western cities. Written in Latin by Hartmann Schedel, with a version in German translation by Georg Alt, it appeared in 1493. It is one of the best-documented early printed books. It is classified as an incunabulum – that is, a book, pamphlet, or broadside that was printed (not handwritten) before the year 1501 in Europe. It is also one of the first to successfully integrate illustrations and text.<br/><br/> Latin scholars refer to it as Liber Chronicarum (Book of Chronicles) as this phrase appears in the index introduction of the Latin edition. English speakers have long referred to it as the Nuremberg Chronicle after the city in which it was published. German speakers refer to it as Die Schedelsche Weltchronik (Schedel's World History) in honour of its author. The illustrations in many copies were hand-coloured after printing.
Yirmisekiz Celebi Mehmet Efendi was a military inspector in the Ottoman armies who rose to be a diplomat and was selected by Sultan Ahmed III to be the empire’s first ambassador to Loius XV’s France. He was also a poet writing under the pen name ‘Faizi’. He wrote a compelling record of his experiences in France in the Turkish book of diplomatic travels, ‘Sefaretname’.
Constantinople was the largest and richest urban center in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea during the late Eastern Roman Empire, mostly as a result of its strategic position commanding the trade routes between the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea. It would remain the capital of the eastern, Greek-speaking empire for over a thousand years. In its heyday, roughly corresponding to the Middle Ages, it was the richest and largest European city, exerting a powerful cultural pull and dominating economic life in the Mediterranean. Visitors and merchants were especially struck by the beautiful monasteries and churches of the city, in particular, Hagia Sophia, or the Church of Holy Wisdom: A Russian 14th-century traveler, Stephen of Novgorod, wrote, "As for St Sophia, the human mind can neither tell it nor make description of it."
Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, Murad III (4 July 1546—15/16 January 1595) was the eldest son of Sultan Selim II (1566–74), and succeeded his father in 1574. Murad began his reign by having his five younger brothers strangled. His authority was undermined by the harem influences, more specifically, those of his mother and later of his favorite wife Safiye Sultan. The power had only been maintained under Selim II by the genius of the all-powerful Grand Vizier Mehmed Sokollu who remained in office until his assassination in October 1579. The reign of Murad III was marked by wars with Safavids and Habsburgs and Ottoman economic decline and institutional decay.
The Nuremberg Chronicle is an illustrated world history. Its structure follows the story of human history as related in the Bible; it includes the histories of a number of important Western cities. Written in Latin by Hartmann Schedel, with a version in German translation by Georg Alt, it appeared in 1493. It is one of the best-documented early printed books. It is classified as an incunabulum – that is, a book, pamphlet, or broadside that was printed (not handwritten) before the year 1501 in Europe. It is also one of the first to successfully integrate illustrations and text.<br/><br/> Latin scholars refer to it as Liber Chronicarum (Book of Chronicles) as this phrase appears in the index introduction of the Latin edition. English speakers have long referred to it as the Nuremberg Chronicle after the city in which it was published. German speakers refer to it as Die Schedelsche Weltchronik (Schedel's World History) in honour of its author. The illustrations in many copies were hand-coloured after printing.
Constantinople, the capital of Constantine XI’s Byzantine Empire, was captured by Sultan Mehmet II and his Ottoman armies after a seven-week siege. Mehmet had applied pressure on Constantinople and the Byzantines by building forts along the Dardanelles. On 5 April, he laid siege to Constantinople with an army numbering 80,000 to 200,000 men. Constantine reportedly fell leading a charge against the invaders, though his body was never found. The last defenders were killed and the Turks proceeded to loot the city. The battle brought down the 1,100-year Byzantine Empire and is seen by many scholars as marking the end of the Middle Ages.
The Ottoman Empire's power and prestige peaked in the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. The empire was often at odds with the Holy Roman Empire in its steady advance towards Central Europe through the Balkans and the southern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.<br/><br/> At sea, the empire contended with the Holy Leagues, composed of Habsburg Spain, the Republic of Venice and the Knights of St. John, for control of the Mediterranean. In the Indian Ocean, the Ottoman navy frequently confronted Portuguese fleets in order to defend its traditional monopoly over the maritime trade routes between East Asia and Western Europe; these routes faced new competition with the Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488.<br/><br/> In addition, the Ottomans were occasionally at war with Persia over territorial disputes or caused by religious differences between 16th and 18th centuries. During nearly two centuries of decline, the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank in size, military power, and wealth. It entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated.
Throughout the Renaissance, Venice’s relationship with the Ottoman Empire was sustained by trade but punctuated by conflict. In this naval battle, 22 ships from Venice and Malta defeated the Turkish fleet of 36 galleys.
Roxelana (c. 1500–1506 – April 18, 1558) was a slave who became a concubine who then became the beloved wife of Suleyman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire. Known in Ottoman Turkey as Hürrem or Karima, she was actually born Alexandra Anastasia Lisovska as a Ukrainian in Poland. In the 1520s, Roxelana was captured by Crimean Tatars during one of their frequent raids into this region and taken as a slave, probably first to the Crimean city of Kaffa, a major centre of the slave trade, then to Constantinople, and was selected for Süleyman's harem.<br/><br/> Roxelana quickly became the sultan’s favourite, enchanted as he was with her beauty and sensuality. Their romance inspired artists, poets and writers for many years after.
Yirmisekiz Celebi Mehmet Efendi was a military inspector in the Ottoman armies who rose to be a diplomat and was selected by Sultan Ahmed III to be the empire’s first ambassador to Loius XV’s France. He was also a poet writing under the pen name ‘Faizi’. He wrote a compelling record of his experiences in France in the Turkish book of diplomatic travels, ‘Sefaretname’.
Mehmed II (March 30, 1432 – May 3, 1481) or, in modern Turkish, Fatih Sultan Mehmet; known as Mahomet or Mohammed II in early modern Europe) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1444 to September 1446, and later from February 1451 to 1481. At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople, now Istanbul, bringing an end to the Byzantine Empire.
Jerrapasha was, at the time, a popular Venetian trading centre. The spiral column in this painting was erected by the Eastern Roman emperor Arcadius in AD 405.
Mehmed II (March 30, 1432 – May 3, 1481) or, in modern Turkish, Fatih Sultan Mehmet; known as Mahomet or Mohammed II in early modern Europe) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1444 to September 1446, and later from February 1451 to 1481.<br/><br/> In 1453, at the age of just 21, Mehmed led an Ottoman army in the siege of Constantinople with between 80,000 to 200,000 troops and a navy of 320 vessels, though the bulk of them were transport and store ships. The city was surrounded by sea and land; the fleet at the entrance of the Bosphorus was stretched from shore to shore in the form of a crescent, to intercept or repel any assistance from the sea for the besieged Byzantines.<br/><br/> In early April, the Siege of Constantinople began. After several fruitless assaults, the city's walls held off the Turks with great difficulty, even with the use of the new Orban's bombard, a cannon similar to the Dardanelles Gun. The harbor of the Golden Horn was blocked by a boom chain and defended by 28 warships.<br/><br/> On April 22, Mehmed transported his lighter warships overland, around the Genoese colony of Galata and into the Golden Horn's northern shore; 80 galleys were transported from the Bosphorus after paving a little over one-mile route with wood. Thus the Byzantines stretched their troops over a longer portion of the walls. A little over a month later, Constantinople fell on May 29 following a 57-day siege. It was the end of the Byzantine Empire.
Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, Murad III (4 July 1546—15/16 January 1595) was the eldest son of Sultan Selim II (1566–74), and succeeded his father in 1574. Murad began his reign by having his five younger brothers strangled. His authority was undermined by the harem influences, more specifically, those of his mother and later of his favorite wife Safiye Sultan. The power had only been maintained under Selim II by the genius of the all-powerful Grand Vizier Mehmed Sokollu who remained in office until his assassination in October 1579. The reign of Murad III was marked by wars with Safavids and Habsburgs and Ottoman economic decline and institutional decay.
Yirmisekiz Celebi Mehmet Efendi was a military inspector in the Ottoman armies who rose to be a diplomat and was selected by Sultan Ahmed III to be the empire’s first ambassador to Loius XV’s France. He was also a poet writing under the pen name ‘Faizi’. He wrote a compelling record of his experiences in France in the Turkish book of diplomatic travels, ‘Sefaretname’.
The Italian cities of Venice and Genoa dominated trade with the East in the 1300s though they were often at war with each other. Situated on the Adriatic Sea, Venice traded regularly with the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim world extensively.<br/><br/> By the late 13th century, Venice was the most prosperous city in all of Europe. At the peak of its power and wealth, it had 36,000 sailors operating 3,300 ships, dominating Mediterranean commerce. During this time, Venice's leading families vied with each other to build the grandest palaces and support the work of the greatest and most talented artists. Venice's decline was swift though—in between plagues of the Black Death in 1348 and 1575 that devastated the population, Venice was defeated by the Ottoman Turks and lost influence in Constantinople by the 1450s.<br/><br/> After Columbus discovered the New World, new trade routes were established to the East via the Americas, and Venice's monopoly of trade routes via the Arabian Sea was promptly ignored by other European powers.
The period from the mid-8th century to the mid-13th century is considered the Islamic Golden Age. It was a time when Arabs and Muslims made great strides in the fields of science, engineering, education, poetry, philosophy, geography, trade, agriculture, the arts, economics, industry, law, literature, navigation, philosophy, sociology and technology. In the Islamic world, astronomy was studied fastidiously to calculate the direction of the Qibla and to fix the times for Salah, Muslim prayers, as well as to aid sailors and navigators.
According to the accompanying description on page 168 recto, the plant is used as raw material for ropes, their fruits helps with ear problems. The Arabic text at left appears to read qinnab bustani Ω‚Ω†Ψ¨ Ψ¨Ψ³ΨͺΨ§Ω†ΩŠ or 'garden hemp'.<br/><br/> The Vienna Dioscurides or Vienna Dioscorides is an early 6th century illuminated manuscript of De Materia Medica by Dioscorides in Greek. It is an important and rare example of a late antique scientific text. The 491 vellum folios measure 37 by 30 cm and contain more than 400 pictures of animals and plants, most done in a naturalistic style.<br/><br/> In addition to the text by Dioscorides, the manuscript has appended to it the Carmen de herbis attributed to Rufus, a paraphrase of an ornithological treatise by a certain Dionysius, usually identified with Dionysius of Philadelphia, and a paraphrase of Nicander's treatise on the treatment of snake bites.<br/><br/> The manuscript was created in about 515 and was made for the Byzantine princess Juliana Anicia, the daughter of Emperor Anicius Olybrius. Although it was originally created as a luxury copy, there is some indication that in later centuries it was used daily as a hospital textbook. It includes some annotations in Arabic.<br/><br/> The manuscript was discovered in Istanbul in the 1560s by the Flemish diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq who was in the employ of Emperor Ferdinand I. The Emperor bought the manuscript and it is now held in the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek in Vienna. The manuscript was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme Register in 1997 in recognition of its historical significance.
Istanbul's Hagia Sophia (Greek) or Ayasofya (Turkish) was originally constructed as a main Eastern Orthodox church and served in this role from 537 CE until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 (except between 1204 and 1261 when it was converted by the Fourth Crusaders to a Roman Catholic cathedral).<br/><br/> When the Ottoman Turks under Mehmed II conquered Constantinople, the Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque and Christian relics and art were either removed or plastered over. It remained a mosque for almost 500 years, before being converted into a museum between 1931 and 1935.<br/><br/> Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and influenced the design of numerous mosques in what is now Istanbul.
Probably born in Venice around 1254 CE, Marco Polo was raised by his aunt and uncle after his mother died. His father, Niccolo, was a Venetian merchant who left before Marco was born to trade in the Middle East. Niccolo and his brother Maffeo passed through much of Asia and met with Mongol emperor Kublai Khan who reportedly invited them to be ambassadors. In 1269, Niccolo and Maffeo returned to Venice, meeting Marco for the first time.<br/><br/> In 1271, Marco Polo, aged 17, with his father and his uncle, set off for Asia, travelling through Constantinople, Baghdad, Persia, Kashgar, China and Burma. They returned to Venice 24 years and 15,000 miles later with many riches. Upon their return, Venice was at war with Genoa, and Marco Polo was imprisoned. He spent the few months of his imprisonment dictating his adventures to a fellow inmate, Rustichello da Pisa, who incorporated the tales into a book he called 'The Travels of Marco Polo'. The book documented the use of paper money and the burning of coal, and opened European eyes to the wonders of the East.
Charlemagne (c. 742 – January 28, 814), also known as Charles the Great (Latin: Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus) or Charles I, was the founder of the Carolingian Empire, reigning from 768 until his death. He expanded the Frankish kingdom, adding Italy, subduing the Saxons and Bavarians, and pushed his frontier into Spain. The oldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon, Charlemagne was the first Emperor in Western Europe since the fall of the Roman Empire four centuries earlier.<br/><br/> Tyrian purple (Greek, πορφύρα, porphyra, Latin: purpura), also known as royal purple, imperial purple or imperial dye, is a purple-red natural dye, which is a secretion produced by certain species of predatory sea snails in the family Muricidae, a type of rock snail by the name Murex. This dye was probably first used by the ancient Phoenicians. The dye was greatly prized in antiquity because the color did not easily fade, but instead became brighter with weathering and sunlight.<br/><br/> Tyrian purple was expensive: the 4th-century-BC historian Theopompus reported, 'Purple for dyes fetched its weight in silver at Colophon' in Asia Minor. The expense meant that purple-dyed textiles became status symbols, and early sumptuary laws restricted their uses. The production of Tyrian purple was tightly controlled in Byzantium and was subsidized by the imperial court, which restricted its use for the colouring of imperial silks, so that a child born to a reigning emperor was styled 'porphyrogenitos' or 'born in the purple'.