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The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. It is considered the fourth-holiest place in Islam. The construction of the mosque is believed to have been started soon after the Arab conquest of Damascus in 634. The mosque contains a shrine dedicated to John the Baptist as well as the tomb of Saladin.
The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. It is considered the fourth-holiest place in Islam. The construction of the mosque is believed to have been started soon after the Arab conquest of Damascus in 634. The mosque contains a shrine dedicated to John the Baptist as well as the tomb of Saladin.
The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. It is considered the fourth-holiest place in Islam. The construction of the mosque is believed to have been started soon after the Arab conquest of Damascus in 634. The mosque contains a shrine dedicated to John the Baptist as well as the tomb of Saladin.
The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. It is considered the fourth-holiest place in Islam. The construction of the mosque is believed to have been started soon after the Arab conquest of Damascus in 634. The mosque contains a shrine dedicated to John the Baptist as well as the tomb of Saladin.
The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. It is considered the fourth-holiest place in Islam. The construction of the mosque is believed to have been started soon after the Arab conquest of Damascus in 634. The mosque contains a shrine dedicated to John the Baptist as well as the tomb of Saladin.
From 1861 to 1890 the Munich publishing firm of Braun and Schneider published plates of historic and contemporary costume in their magazine Munchener Bilderbogen.<br/><br/> These plates were eventually collected in book form and published at the turn of the century in Germany and England.
From 1861 to 1890 the Munich publishing firm of Braun and Schneider published plates of historic and contemporary costume in their magazine Munchener Bilderbogen.<br/><br/> These plates were eventually collected in book form and published at the turn of the century in Germany and England.
From 1861 to 1890 the Munich publishing firm of Braun and Schneider published plates of historic and contemporary costume in their magazine Munchener Bilderbogen.<br/><br/> These plates were eventually collected in book form and published at the turn of the century in Germany and England.
From 1861 to 1890 the Munich publishing firm of Braun and Schneider published plates of historic and contemporary costume in their magazine Munchener Bilderbogen.<br/><br/> These plates were eventually collected in book form and published at the turn of the century in Germany and England.
From 1861 to 1890 the Munich publishing firm of Braun and Schneider published plates of historic and contemporary costume in their magazine Munchener Bilderbogen.<br/><br/> These plates were eventually collected in book form and published at the turn of the century in Germany and England.
The Tekkiye Mosque (also Takiyyeh as-Sulaymaniyyah, Takieh as-Sulaymaniyya) was built on the orders of Suleiman the Magnificent and designed by the architect Mimar Sinan between 1554 and 1560. It has been described as 'the finest example in Damascus of Ottoman architecture'.
The Tekkiye Mosque (also Takiyyeh as-Sulaymaniyyah, Takieh as-Sulaymaniyya) was built on the orders of Suleiman the Magnificent and designed by the architect Mimar Sinan between 1554 and 1560. It has been described as 'the finest example in Damascus of Ottoman architecture'.
Bashar al-Assad (born 11 Sept 1965) is president of the Syrian Arab Republic and Regional Secretary of the Ba'ath Party. He became president in 2000 after the death of his father Hafez al-Assad, who had ruled Syria for 29 years.
The Siege of Damascus took place between 24 July and 29 July 1148, during the Second Crusade. It ended in a decisive crusader defeat and led to the disintegration of the crusade.<br/><br/> The two main Christian forces that marched to the Holy Land in response to Pope Eugene III and Bernard of Clairvaux's call for the Second Crusade were led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany.
The Tekkiye Mosque (also Takiyyeh as-Sulaymaniyyah, Takieh as-Sulaymaniyya) was built on the orders of Suleiman the Magnificent and designed by the architect Mimar Sinan between 1554 and 1560. It has been described as 'the finest example in Damascus of Ottoman architecture'.
Palestine (Arabic: فلسطين‎ Filasṭīn, Falasṭīn, Filisṭīn; Greek: Παλαιστίνη, Palaistinē; Latin: Palaestina; Hebrew: פלשתינה Palestina) is a name given to the geographic region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The region is also known as the Land of Israel (Hebrew: ארץ־ישראל Eretz-Yisra'el), the Holy Land and the Southern Levant.<br/><br/> In 1832 Palestine was conquered by Muhammad Ali's Egypt, but in 1840 Britain intervened and returned control of the Levant to the Ottomans in return for further capitulations. The end of the 19th century saw the beginning of Zionist immigration and the Revival of the Hebrew language. The movement was publicly supported by Great Britain during World War I with the Balfour Declaration of 1917. The British captured Jerusalem a month later, and were formally awarded a mandate in 1922.<br/><br/> In 1947, following World War II and the Holocaust, the British Government announced their desire to terminate the Mandate, and the United Nations General Assembly voted to partition the territory into a Jewish state and an Arab state. The Jewish leadership accepted the proposal but the Arab Higher Committee rejected it; a civil war began immediately, and the State of Israel was declared in 1948.<br/><br/> The 1948 Palestinian exodus, known in Arabic as the Nakba (Arabic: النكبة‎, an-Nakbah, 'The Catastrophe') occurred when approximately 711,000 to 725,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes, during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War during which Israel captured and incorporated a further 26% of Palestinian territory.<br/><br/> In the course of the Six Day War in June 1967, Israel captured the remainder of historic Palestine and began a continuing policy of Israeli settlement and annexation.
Palestine (Arabic: فلسطين‎ Filasṭīn, Falasṭīn, Filisṭīn; Greek: Παλαιστίνη, Palaistinē; Latin: Palaestina; Hebrew: פלשתינה Palestina) is a n ame given to the geographic region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The region is also known as the Land of Israel (Hebrew: ארץ־ישראל Eretz-Yisra'el), the Holy Land and the Southern Levant.<br/><br/> In 1832 Palestine was conquered by Muhammad Ali's Egypt, but in 1840 Britain intervened and returned control of the Levant to the Ottomans in return for further capitulations. The end of the 19th century saw the beginning of Zionist immigration and the Revival of the Hebrew language. The movement was publicly supported by Great Britain during World War I with the Balfour Declaration of 1917. The British captured Jerusalem a month later, and were formally awarded a mandate in 1922.<br/><br/> In 1947, following World War II and the Holocaust, the British Government announced their desire to terminate the Mandate, and the United Nations General Assembly voted to partition the territory into a Jewish state and an Arab state. The Jewish leadership accepted the proposal but the Arab Higher Committee rejected it; a civil war began immediately, and the State of Israel was declared in 1948.<br/><br/> The 1948 Palestinian exodus, known in Arabic as the Nakba (Arabic: النكبة‎, an-Nakbah, 'The Catastrophe') occurred when approximately 711,000 to 725,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes, during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War during which Israel captured and incorporated a further 26% of Palestinian territory.<br/><br/> In the course of the Six Day War in June 1967, Israel captured the remainder of historic Palestine and began a continuing policy of Israeli settlement and annexation.
Palestine (Arabic: فلسطين‎ Filasṭīn, Falasṭīn, Filisṭīn; Greek: Παλαιστίνη, Palaistinē; Latin: Palaestina; Hebrew: פלשתינה Palestina) is a n ame given to the geographic region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The region is also known as the Land of Israel (Hebrew: ארץ־ישראל Eretz-Yisra'el), the Holy Land and the Southern Levant.<br/><br/> In 1832 Palestine was conquered by Muhammad Ali's Egypt, but in 1840 Britain intervened and returned control of the Levant to the Ottomans in return for further capitulations. The end of the 19th century saw the beginning of Zionist immigration and the Revival of the Hebrew language. The movement was publicly supported by Great Britain during World War I with the Balfour Declaration of 1917. The British captured Jerusalem a month later, and were formally awarded a mandate in 1922.<br/><br/> In 1947, following World War II and the Holocaust, the British Government announced their desire to terminate the Mandate, and the United Nations General Assembly voted to partition the territory into a Jewish state and an Arab state. The Jewish leadership accepted the proposal but the Arab Higher Committee rejected it; a civil war began immediately, and the State of Israel was declared in 1948.<br/><br/> The 1948 Palestinian exodus, known in Arabic as the Nakba (Arabic: النكبة‎, an-Nakbah, 'The Catastrophe') occurred when approximately 711,000 to 725,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes, during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War during which Israel captured and incorporated a further 26% of Palestinian territory.<br/><br/> In the course of the Six Day War in June 1967, Israel captured the remainder of historic Palestine and began a continuing policy of Israeli settlement and annexation.
Damascus was first settled in the 2nd millennium BC, it was chosen as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate from 661 to 750.<br/><br/> After the victory of the Abbasid dynasty, the seat of Islamic power was moved to Baghdad. Damascus saw a political decline throughout the Abbasid era, only to regain significant importance in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods.<br/><br/> During Ottoman rule, the city decayed completely while maintaining a certain cultural prestige. Today, it is the seat of the central government and all of the government ministries.
Damascus was first settled in the 2nd millennium BC, it was chosen as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate from 661 to 750.<br/><br/> After the victory of the Abbasid dynasty, the seat of Islamic power was moved to Baghdad. Damascus saw a political decline throughout the Abbasid era, only to regain significant importance in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods.<br/><br/> During Ottoman rule, the city decayed completely while maintaining a certain cultural prestige. Today, it is the seat of the central government and all of the government ministries.
Damascus was first settled in the 2nd millennium BC, it was chosen as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate from 661 to 750.<br/><br/> After the victory of the Abbasid dynasty, the seat of Islamic power was moved to Baghdad. Damascus saw a political decline throughout the Abbasid era, only to regain significant importance in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods.<br/><br/> During Ottoman rule, the city decayed completely while maintaining a certain cultural prestige. Today, it is the seat of the central government and all of the government ministries.
Spherical incense burners from thie period, very few of which have survived, were hung from the ceiling or from the vault of an arch, while an ingenious system of gimbals inside the sphere stabilized the burning incense in the swinging container.
Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb (c. 1138 – March 4, 1193), better known in the Western world as Saladin, was a Kurdish Muslim, who became the first Ayyubid Sultan of Egypt and Syria. He led Islamic opposition to the Franks and other European Crusaders in the Levant. At the height of his power, he ruled over Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Hejaz, and Yemen. He led the Muslims against the Crusaders and eventually recaptured Palestine from the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem after his victory in the Battle of Hattin.
The Temple of Jupiter in Damascus was built by the Romans, beginning during the rule of Augustus (23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) and completed during the rule of Constantius II (7 August 317 – 3 November 361).
Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb (c. 1138 – March 4, 1193), better known in the Western world as Saladin, was a Kurdish Muslim, who became the first Ayyubid Sultan of Egypt and Syria. He led Islamic opposition to the Franks and other European Crusaders in the Levant. At the height of his power, he ruled over Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Hejaz, and Yemen. He led the Muslims against the Crusaders and eventually recaptured Palestine from the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem after his victory in the Battle of Hattin.
The Tekkiye Mosque (also Takiyyeh as-Sulaymaniyyah, Takieh as-Sulaymaniyya) was built on the orders of Suleiman the Magnificent and designed by the architect Mimar Sinan between 1554 and 1560. It has been described as "The finest example in Damascus of Ottoman architecture".
The Tekkiye Mosque (also Takiyyeh as-Sulaymaniyyah, Takieh as-Sulaymaniyya) was built on the orders of Suleiman the Magnificent and designed by the architect Mimar Sinan between 1554 and 1560. It has been described as "The finest example in Damascus of Ottoman architecture".
The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. It is considered the fourth-holiest place in Islam. The construction of the mosque is believed to have been started soon after the Arab conquest of Damascus in 634. The mosque contains a shrine dedicated to John the Baptist as well as the tomb of Saladin.
The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. It is considered the fourth-holiest place in Islam. The construction of the mosque is believed to have been started soon after the Arab conquest of Damascus in 634. The mosque contains a shrine dedicated to John the Baptist as well as the tomb of Saladin.
The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. It is considered the fourth-holiest place in Islam. The construction of the mosque is believed to have been started soon after the Arab conquest of Damascus in 634. The mosque contains a shrine dedicated to John the Baptist as well as the tomb of Saladin.
The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. It is considered the fourth-holiest place in Islam. The construction of the mosque is believed to have been started soon after the Arab conquest of Damascus in 634. The mosque contains a shrine dedicated to John the Baptist as well as the tomb of Saladin.
The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. It is considered the fourth-holiest place in Islam. The construction of the mosque is believed to have been started soon after the Arab conquest of Damascus in 634. The mosque contains a shrine dedicated to John the Baptist as well as the tomb of Saladin.
The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. It is considered the fourth-holiest place in Islam. The construction of the mosque is believed to have been started soon after the Arab conquest of Damascus in 634. The mosque contains a shrine dedicated to John the Baptist as well as the tomb of Saladin.
The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. It is considered the fourth-holiest place in Islam. The construction of the mosque is believed to have been started soon after the Arab conquest of Damascus in 634. The mosque contains a shrine dedicated to John the Baptist as well as the tomb of Saladin.
The majority of the soldiers in the Syrian armed forces are Alawites, like President Bashar Al-Assad. Alawites make up 7 percent of the Syrian population but are estimated to make up 70 percent of the career soldiers in the Syrian army. Of the 200,000 or so career soldiers in the Syrian army 140,000 are Alawites. A similar imbalance is seen in the officer corps where some 80 percent of the officers are Alawites. The military’s most elite division, the Republican Guard, and the 4th Mechanized Division are exclusively Alawite.
The Street Called Straight (Latin: Via Recta, Arabic: Al-Shāri` al-Mustaqīm), is the Roman street (Decumanus Maximus) that runs from east to west in the old city of Damascus. It was visited by St. Paul as recorded in the Acts of the Apostles, the fifth book of the Christian New Testament, and contains several interesting sights from the Roman, Christian and Islamic periods. The east end of Straight Street is at Bab al-Sharqi, the Roman gate of the Sun.<br/><br/> Under the Greeks, the old city of Damascus was designed after the grid pattern designed by Hippodamus. The Roman street, extending 1500 meters, used to be lined with columns and had gates on both ends, houses and shops on both sides. These columns can still be seen today. Today it consists of two main streets in old Damascus; the Avenue of Bab Sharqi and Medhat Pasha Souq, a major Damascus market, named after Medhat Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Damascus who renovated it and ordered its coverage with a lead-shade.
Georg Braun (also Brunus, Bruin; 1541 – 10 March 1622) was a topo-geographer. From 1572 to 1617 he edited the Civitates orbis terrarum, which contains 546 prospects, bird's-eye views, and maps of cities from all around the world.<br/><br/> The six-volume work was inspired by Sebastian Münster's Cosmographia. In form and layout it resembles the 1570 Theatrum orbis terrarum by Abraham Ortelius, as Ortelius was interested in a complementary companion for the Theatrum.<br/><br/> The Braun publication set new standards in cartography for over 100 years. Frans Hogenberg (1535–1590, from Munich) created the tables for volumes I through IV, and Simon van den Neuwel created those for volumes V and VI.
Syrian Jews are Jews who inhabit the region of the modern state of Syria, and their descendants born outside Syria. Syrian Jews derive their origin from two groups: from the Jews who inhabited the region of today's Syria from ancient times (known as Musta'arabi Jews, and sometimes classified as Mizrahi Jews, a generic term for the Jews with an extended history in the Middle East or North Africa); and from the Sephardi Jews (referring to Jews with an extended history in the Iberian Peninsula, i.e. Spain and Portugal) who fled to Syria after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain (1492 CE).<br/><br/> There were large communities in Aleppo and Damascus for centuries, and a smaller community in Qamishli on the Turkish border near Nusaybin. In the first half of the 20th century a large percentage of Syrian Jews emigrated to the U.S., Central and South America and Israel. Most of the remaining Jews left in the 28 years following 1973. Today there are about 25 Jews in Syria, all of them living in Damascus. The largest Syrian Jewish community is located in Brooklyn, New York and is estimated at 75,000 strong. There are smaller communities elsewhere in the United States and in Latin America.
Syrian Jews are Jews who inhabit the region of the modern state of Syria, and their descendants born outside Syria. Syrian Jews derive their origin from two groups: from the Jews who inhabited the region of today's Syria from ancient times (known as Musta'arabi Jews, and sometimes classified as Mizrahi Jews, a generic term for the Jews with an extended history in the Middle East or North Africa); and from the Sephardi Jews (referring to Jews with an extended history in the Iberian Peninsula, i.e. Spain and Portugal) who fled to Syria after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain (1492 CE).<br/><br/> There were large communities in Aleppo and Damascus for centuries, and a smaller community in Qamishli on the Turkish border near Nusaybin. In the first half of the 20th century a large percentage of Syrian Jews emigrated to the U.S., Central and South America and Israel. Most of the remaining Jews left in the 28 years following 1973. Today there are about 25 Jews in Syria, all of them living in Damascus. The largest Syrian Jewish community is located in Brooklyn, New York and is estimated at 75,000 strong. There are smaller communities elsewhere in the United States and in Latin America.
Damascus steel was a term used by several Western cultures from the Medieval period onward to describe a type of steel used in swordmaking from about 300 BC to 1700 AD. These swords are characterized by distinctive patterns of banding and mottling reminiscent of flowing water. Such blades were reputed to be not only tough and resistant to shattering, but capable of being honed to a sharp and resilient edge.<br/><br/> The original method of producing Damascus steel is not known. Due to differences in raw materials and manufacturing techniques, modern attempts to duplicate the metal have not been entirely successful. Despite this, several individuals in modern times have claimed that they have rediscovered the methods in which the original Damascus steel was produced. Today, the term is used to describe steel that mimics the appearance and performance of Damascus steel, usually that which is produced by the techniques of crucible forging or pattern welding.<br/><br/> The reputation and history of Damascus steel has given rise to many legends, such as the ability to cut through a rifle barrel, or cut a hair falling across the blade.
The Druze (Arabic: derzī or durzī‎, plural durūz, Hebrew:‎ druzim) are an esoteric, monotheistic religious community found primarily in Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan, which emerged during the 11th century from Ismailism, that incorporated several elements of Gnosticism, Neoplatonism and other philosophies. The Druze call themselves Ahl al-Tawhid (People of Unitarianism or Monotheism) or al-Muwaḥḥidūn (Unitarians, Monotheists), in which the official name of the sect is al-Muwaḥḥidūn al Dururz (The Unitarian Druze).<br/><br/> The Institute of Druze Studies estimates that 40% –50% of Druze live in Syria, 30% – 40% in Lebanon, 6% – 7% in Israel, and 1% – 2% in Jordan.
The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. It is considered the fourth-holiest place in Islam. The construction of the mosque is believed to have been started soon after the Arab conquest of Damascus in 634. The mosque contains a shrine dedicated to John the Baptist as well as the tomb of Saladin.
Gustav Bauernfeind (4 September 1848, Sulz am Neckar - 24 December 1904, Jerusalem) was a German painter, illustrator and architect of partly Jewish origin. He is considered to be one of the most notable Orientalist painters of Germany.
Olfert Dapper (c. 1635 – 29 December 1689) was a Dutch physician and writer. He wrote a book on the history of Amsterdam. Later he also wrote about Africa, China, India, Persia, Georgia, and Arabia, although he had not visited these exotic destinations himself. In fact, he never travelled outside Holland. His books became well-known in his own time. Translations appeared in English, French, and German.
Palestine (Arabic: فلسطين‎ Filasṭīn, Falasṭīn, Filisṭīn; Greek: Παλαιστίνη, Palaistinē; Latin: Palaestina; Hebrew: פלשתינה Palestina) is a n ame given to the geographic region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The region is also known as the Land of Israel (Hebrew: ארץ־ישראל Eretz-Yisra'el), the Holy Land and the Southern Levant.<br/><br/> In 1832 Palestine was conquered by Muhammad Ali's Egypt, but in 1840 Britain intervened and returned control of the Levant to the Ottomans in return for further capitulations. The end of the 19th century saw the beginning of Zionist immigration and the Revival of the Hebrew language. The movement was publicly supported by Great Britain during World War I with the Balfour Declaration of 1917. The British captured Jerusalem a month later, and were formally awarded a mandate in 1922.<br/><br/> In 1947, following World War II and the Holocaust, the British Government announced their desire to terminate the Mandate, and the United Nations General Assembly voted to partition the territory into a Jewish state and an Arab state. The Jewish leadership accepted the proposal but the Arab Higher Committee rejected it; a civil war began immediately, and the State of Israel was declared in 1948.<br/><br/> The 1948 Palestinian exodus, known in Arabic as the Nakba (Arabic: النكبة‎, an-Nakbah, 'The Catastrophe') occurred when approximately 711,000 to 725,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes, during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War during which Israel captured and incorporated a further 26% of Palestinian territory.<br/><br/> In the course of the Six Day War in June 1967, Israel captured the remainder of historic Palestine and began a continuing policy of Israeli settlement and annexation.
David Roberts RA (1796-1864) was a Scottish painter. He is especially known for a prolific series of detailed prints of Egypt and the Near East that he produced during the 1840s from sketches he made during long tours of the region (1838–1840). This work, and his large oil paintings of similar subjects, made him a prominent Orientalist painter. He was elected as a Royal Academician in 1841.
The Armenian Genocide refers to the deliberate and systematic destruction of the Armenian population of the Ottoman Empire during and just after World War I. It was implemented through wholesale massacres and deportations, with the deportations consisting of forced marches under conditions designed to lead to the death of the deportees. The total number of resulting Armenian deaths is generally held to have been between one and one and a half million.<br/><br/> Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians and Greeks, and some scholars consider those events to be part of the same policy of extermination. It is widely acknowledged to have been one of the first modern genocides, as scholars point to the systematic, organized manner in which the killings were carried out to eliminate the Armenians, and it is the second most-studied case of genocide after the Holocaust. The word genocide was coined in order to describe these events.
Palestine (Arabic: فلسطين‎ Filasṭīn, Falasṭīn, Filisṭīn; Greek: Παλαιστίνη, Palaistinē; Latin: Palaestina; Hebrew: פלשתינה Palestina) is a name given to the geographic region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The region is also known as the Land of Israel (Hebrew: ארץ־ישראל Eretz-Yisra'el), the Holy Land and the Southern Levant.<br/><br/> In 1832 Palestine was conquered by Muhammad Ali's Egypt, but in 1840 Britain intervened and returned control of the Levant to the Ottomans in return for further capitulations. The end of the 19th century saw the beginning of Zionist immigration and the Revival of the Hebrew language. The movement was publicly supported by Great Britain during World War I with the Balfour Declaration of 1917. The British captured Jerusalem a month later, and were formally awarded a mandate in 1922.<br/><br/> In 1947, following World War II and the Holocaust, the British Government announced their desire to terminate the Mandate, and the United Nations General Assembly voted to partition the territory into a Jewish state and an Arab state. The Jewish leadership accepted the proposal but the Arab Higher Committee rejected it; a civil war began immediately, and the State of Israel was declared in 1948.<br/><br/> The 1948 Palestinian exodus, known in Arabic as the Nakba (Arabic: النكبة‎, an-Nakbah, 'The Catastrophe') occurred when approximately 711,000 to 725,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes, during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War during which Israel captured and incorporated a further 26% of Palestinian territory.<br/><br/> In the course of the Six Day War in June 1967, Israel captured the remainder of historic Palestine and began a continuing policy of Israeli settlement and annexation.
The Armenian Genocide refers to the deliberate and systematic destruction of the Armenian population of the Ottoman Empire during and just after World War I. It was implemented through wholesale massacres and deportations, with the deportations consisting of forced marches under conditions designed to lead to the death of the deportees. The total number of resulting Armenian deaths is generally held to have been between one and one and a half million.<br/><br/> Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians and Greeks, and some scholars consider those events to be part of the same policy of extermination. It is widely acknowledged to have been one of the first modern genocides, as scholars point to the systematic, organized manner in which the killings were carried out to eliminate the Armenians, and it is the second most-studied case of genocide after the Holocaust. The word genocide was coined in order to describe these events.
Baibars or Baybars (al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baibars al-Bunduqdari, 1223 – July 1, 1277), was a Mamluk Sultan of Egypt. He was one of the commanders of the forces which inflicted a devastating defeat on the Seventh Crusade of King Louis IX of France and he led the vanguard of the Egyptian army at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, which marked the first substantial defeat of the Mongol army and is considered a turning point in history. His reign marked the start of an age of Mamluk dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean and solidified the durability of their military system. He managed to pave the way for the end of the Crusader presence in Syria and to unite Egypt and Syria into one powerful state that was able to fend off threats from both Crusaders and Mongols. As Sultan, Baibars also engaged in a combination of diplomacy and military action which allowed the Mamluks to greatly expand their empire.
From an illuminated Ottoman dua kitabi or ‘prayer book’ by Hasan Rashid (Istanbul, 1845) once the property of a Topkapi harem lady.<br/><br/> The Arabic term ‘du’a’ is generally translated into English as ‘prayer’, though a more exact rendering would be ‘supplication’. The term is derived from an Arabic word meaning to 'call out' or to 'summon', and Muslims regard this as a profound act of worship. This is when Muslims connect with God and ask him for forgivness or appeal for his favour. The Prophet Muhammad is reported to have said ‘Dua is the very essence of worship’, while one of Allah's commands expressed through the Qur'an is for Muslims to call out to Him: 'Call to Me; I will answer your prayers’.<br/><br/> There is a special emphasis on du'a in Muslim spirituality and early Muslims took great care to record the supplications of Muhammad and transmit them to subsequent generations. These traditions precipitated new genres of literature in which prophetic supplications were gathered together in single volumes that were memorized, taught – and treasured.
Mamluks were originally soldiers or slaves who converted to Islam. A Mamluk army seized control of Egypt and Syria and established the ‘Mamluk Sultanate’ from 1250 to 1517 during which time they defeated or repelled Mongol invaders and Christian crusaders.
Translation: 'Under the power of the Eternal Heaven. Under the majesty of the Khan (Kublai Khan). Arghun our word. To the Rey da France (King of France). Last year you sent your ambassadors led by Mar Bar Sawma telling us: "if the soldiers of the Il-Khan ride in the direction of Misir (Egypt) we ourselves will ride from here and join you", which words we have approved and said (in reply) "praying to Tengri (Heaven) we will ride on the last month of winter on the year of the tiger and descend on Dimisq (Damascus) on the 15th of the first month of spring." Now, if, being true to your words, you send your soldiers at the appointed time and, worshipping Heaven, we conquer those citizens (of Damascus together), we will give you Orislim (Jerusalem). How can it be appropriate if you were to start amassing your soldiers later than the appointed time and appointment? What would be the use of regretting afterwards? Also, if, adding any additional messages, you let your ambassadors fly (to us) on wings, sending us luxuries, falcons, whatever precious articles and beasts there are from the land of the Franks, the Power of Tengri and the Majesty of the Khan only knows how we will treat you favorably. With these words we have send Muskeril (Buscarello) the Khorchi. Our writing was written while we were at Khondlon on the sixth khuuchid of the first month of summer on the year of the cow'.