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Remarkable for their military prowess, their receptivity to Christianity, and their intricate all-embracing kinship network, the Kachins are a hardy mountain people living in the remote hills of northern Burma and on the peripheries of India and China.<br/><br/> 'Kachin' is actually a Burmese word that does not exist in any of the local dialects. Each Kachin tribe has a different name for themselves and their neighbours, but no word to describe the whole group. There are the Jinghpaw (known as Jingpo in China and Singpho in India), the Maru, the Lashi, the Atsi (or Szi), the Lisu and the Rawang—but those represent linguistic groups rather than actual nationalities. Far more important bonds are formed by an intricate system of clans, which cuts across tribal barriers.<br/><br/> Every 'Kachin' belongs to one of five original families: Marip, Maran, Lahpai, N'Hkum and Lattaw. These clans are related in an all-embracing kinship network of extreme complexity. In practice, however, this system binds together the Kachins into a remarkably tight-knit society.
Xia Zhao was a minor character from the classic Ming Dynasty novel 'Fengshen Yanyi'. A doctor and junior minister in the court of King Zhou of Shang, he attempted to kill King Zhou to avenge the execution of the beloved Vice Prime Minister Bi Gan. He failed and was killed himself.
Paolo Mascagni (January 25, 1755 – October 19, 1815) was an Italian physician, known for his study of human anatomy, in particular for the first complete description of the lymphatic system.
Francesco Redi (18 February 1626 – 1 March 1697) was an Italian physician, naturalist, biologist and poet. He is referred to as the 'founder of experimental biology', and as the 'father of modern parasitology'. He was the first person to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies.
Albert Schweitzer, OM (4 January 1875 – 4 September 1965) was an Alsatian theologian, organist, writer, humanitarian, philosopher, and physician.<br/><br/> Schweitzer received the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize for his philosophy of 'Reverence for Life'. His philosophy was expressed in many ways, but most famously in founding and sustaining the Albert Schweitzer Hospital in Lambaréné, in the part of French Equatorial Africa which is now Gabon.<br/><br/> As a music scholar and organist, he studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ Reform Movement.
Albert Schweitzer, OM (4 January 1875 – 4 September 1965) was an Alsatian theologian, organist, writer, humanitarian, philosopher, and physician.<br/><br/> Schweitzer received the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize for his philosophy of 'Reverence for Life'. His philosophy was expressed in many ways, but most famously in founding and sustaining the Albert Schweitzer Hospital in Lambaréné, in the part of French Equatorial Africa which is now Gabon.<br/><br/> As a music scholar and organist, he studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ Reform Movement.
Albert Schweitzer, OM (4 January 1875 – 4 September 1965) was an Alsatian theologian, organist, writer, humanitarian, philosopher, and physician.<br/><br/> Schweitzer received the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize for his philosophy of 'Reverence for Life'. His philosophy was expressed in many ways, but most famously in founding and sustaining the Albert Schweitzer Hospital in Lambaréné, in the part of French Equatorial Africa which is now Gabon.<br/><br/> As a music scholar and organist, he studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ Reform Movement.
Abu ʿAlī al-Husayn ibn ʿAbd Allah ibn Sīna (c. 980, Afshana near Bukhara – 1037, Hamadan, Iran), commonly known as Ibn Sīna or by his Latinized name Avicenna, was a Persian polymath, who wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. In particular, 150 of his surviving treatises concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine.<br/><br/> His most famous works are <i>The Book of Healing</i>, a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopaedia, and <i>The Canon of Medicine</i>, which was a standard medical text at many medieval universities. <i>The Canon of Medicine</i> was used as a text-book in the universities of Montpellier and Leuven as late as 1650. Ibn Sīna's <i>Canon of Medicine</i> provides a complete system of medicine according to the principles of Galen and Hippocrates.<br/><br/> His corpus also includes writing on philosophy, astronomy, alchemy, geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics, as well as poetry. He is regarded as the most famous and influential polymath of the Islamic Golden Age.
Sigmund Freud, born Sigismund Schlomo Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist, now known as the father of psychoanalysis.<br/><br/> Freud qualified as a doctor of medicine at the University of Vienna in 1881, and then carried out research into cerebral palsy, aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy at the Vienna General Hospital. Upon completing his habilitation in 1895, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology in the same year and became an affiliated professor (professor extraordinarius) in 1902.<br/><br/> Freud's work has suffused contemporary Western thought and popular culture.
Abu Alī al-Husayn ibn Abd Allah ibn Sina (c. 980, Afshana near Bukhara– 1037, Hamadan, Iran), commonly known as Ibn Sina or by his Latinized name Avicenna, was a Persian polymath who wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. In particular, 150 of his surviving treatises concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine.<br/><br/> His most famous works are 'The Book of Healing', a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopaedia, and 'The Canon of Medicine', which was a standard medical text at many medieval universities. 'The Canon of Medicine' was used as a text-book in the universities of Montpellier and Leuven as late as 1650. Ibn Sina's 'Canon of Medicine' provides a complete system of medicine according to the principles of Galen and Hippocrates.<br/><br/> His corpus also includes writing on philosophy, astronomy, alchemy, geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics, as well as poetry. He is regarded as the most famous and influential polymath of the Islamic Golden Age.
Sigmund Freud, born Sigismund Schlomo Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist, now known as the father of psychoanalysis.<br/><br/> Freud qualified as a doctor of medicine at the University of Vienna in 1881, and then carried out research into cerebral palsy, aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy at the Vienna General Hospital. Upon completing his habilitation in 1895, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology in the same year and became an affiliated professor (professor extraordinarius) in 1902.<br/><br/> Freud's work has suffused contemporary Western thought and popular culture.
Clark University is an American private university and liberal arts college in Worcester, Massachusetts. Founded in 1887, it is the oldest educational institution founded as an all-graduate university in the United States.<br/><br/> It is one of only three New England universities, along with Harvard and Yale, to be a founding member of the Association of American Universities, an organization of universities with the most prestigious profiles in research and graduate education.
Salvador Guillermo Allende Gossens (26 June 1908 – 11 September 1973) was a Chilean physician and politician, known as the first Marxist to become president of a Latin American country through open elections.<br/><br/> On 11 September 1973, the military moved to oust Allende in a coup d'etat sponsored by the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). As troops surrounded La Moneda Palace, he gave his last speech vowing not to resign. Later that day, Allende shot himself with an assault rifle, according to an investigation conducted by a Chilean court with the assistance of international experts in 2011.<br/><br/> Following Allende's 'resignation', General Augusto Pinochet declined to return authority to the civilian government, and Chile was later ruled by a military junta that was in power up until 1990, ending almost four decades of Chilean democratic rule. The military junta that took over dissolved the Congress of Chile and began a persecution of alleged dissidents, in which thousands of Allende's supporters were kidnapped, tortured, and murdered.
Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde is the original title of a novella written by the Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson that was first published in 1886. The work is commonly known today as The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, or simply Jekyll & Hyde. It is about a London lawyer named Gabriel John Utterson who investigates strange occurrences between his old friend, Dr. Henry Jekyll, and the evil Edward Hyde.<br/><br/> The work is commonly associated with the rare mental condition often called 'split personality', referred to in psychiatry as dissociative identity disorder, where within the same body there exists more than one distinct personality. In this case, there are two personalities within Dr. Jekyll, one apparently good and the other evil. The novella's impact is such that it has become a part of the language, with the very phrase 'Jekyll and Hyde' coming to mean a person who is vastly different in moral character from one situation to the next.
Carl Gustav Jung ( 26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist who founded analytical psychology. His work has been influential not only in psychiatry but also in philosophy, anthropology, archaeology, literature, and religious studies. He was a prolific writer, though many of his works were not published until after his death.<br/><br/> The central concept of analytical psychology is individuation—the psychological process of integrating the opposites, including the conscious with the unconscious, while still maintaining their relative autonomy. Jung considered individuation to be the central process of human development.<br/><br/> Jung created some of the best known psychological concepts, including the archetype, the collective unconscious, the complex, and extraversion and introversion.
Thomas Richardson Colledge (1796 – 28 October 1879) was a Scottish surgeon with the East India Company at Guangzhou (Canton) who served part-time as the first medical missionary in China. In 1837 he founded and served as the first president of the Medical Missionary Society of China.<br/><br/> This portrait shows Dr. Colledge after he has completed an operation on a Chinese woman, explaining the outcome to his servant, who acts as an interpreter. The woman's son kneels in front, presenting a letter of thanks.
Thomas Richardson Colledge (1796 – 28 October 1879) was a Scottish surgeon with the East India Company at Guangzhou (Canton) who served part-time as the first medical missionary in China. In 1837 he founded and served as the first president of the Medical Missionary Society of China.<br/><br/> This portrait shows Dr. Colledge after he has completed an operation on a Chinese woman, explaining the outcome to his servant, who acts as an interpreter. The woman's son kneels in front, presenting a letter of thanks.
Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Sīnā (Persian پورسينا Pur-e Sina [ˈpuːre ˈsiːnɑː] 'son of Sina'; c. 980, Afshana near Bukhara– 1037, Hamadan, Iran), commonly known as Ibn Sīnā or by his Latinized name Avicenna, was a Persian polymath, who wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. In particular, 150 of his surviving treatises concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine.<br/><br/> His most famous works are 'The Book of Healing', a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopaedia, and 'The Canon of Medicine', which was a standard medical text at many medieval universities. 'The Canon of Medicine' was used as a text-book in the universities of Montpellier and Leuven as late as 1650. Ibn Sīnā's 'Canon of Medicine' provides a complete system of medicine according to the principles of Galen (and Hippocrates).<br/><br/> His corpus also includes writing on philosophy, astronomy, alchemy, geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics, as well as poetry. He is regarded as the most famous and influential polymath of the Islamic Golden Age.
Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Sīnā (Persian پورسينا Pur-e Sina [ˈpuːre ˈsiːnɑː] 'son of Sina'; c. 980, Afshana near Bukhara– 1037, Hamadan, Iran), commonly known as Ibn Sīnā or by his Latinized name Avicenna, was a Persian polymath, who wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. In particular, 150 of his surviving treatises concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine.<br/><br/> His most famous works are 'The Book of Healing', a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopaedia, and 'The Canon of Medicine', which was a standard medical text at many medieval universities. 'The Canon of Medicine' was used as a text-book in the universities of Montpellier and Leuven as late as 1650. Ibn Sīnā's 'Canon of Medicine' provides a complete system of medicine according to the principles of Galen (and Hippocrates).<br/><br/> His corpus also includes writing on philosophy, astronomy, alchemy, geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics, as well as poetry. He is regarded as the most famous and influential polymath of the Islamic Golden Age.
Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Sīnā (Persian پورسينا Pur-e Sina [ˈpuːre ˈsiːnɑː] 'son of Sina'; c. 980, Afshana near Bukhara– 1037, Hamadan, Iran), commonly known as Ibn Sīnā or by his Latinized name Avicenna, was a Persian polymath, who wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. In particular, 150 of his surviving treatises concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine.<br/><br/> His most famous works are 'The Book of Healing', a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopaedia, and 'The Canon of Medicine', which was a standard medical text at many medieval universities. 'The Canon of Medicine' was used as a text-book in the universities of Montpellier and Leuven as late as 1650. Ibn Sīnā's 'Canon of Medicine' provides a complete system of medicine according to the principles of Galen (and Hippocrates).<br/><br/> His corpus also includes writing on philosophy, astronomy, alchemy, geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics, as well as poetry. He is regarded as the most famous and influential polymath of the Islamic Golden Age.
The Black Death was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, peaking in Europe between 1348 and 1350. Of several competing theories, the dominant explanation for the Black Death is the plague theory, which attributes the outbreak to the bacterium Yersinia pestis.<br/><br/> Thought to have started in China, it travelled along the Silk Road and reached the Crimea by 1346. From there, probably carried by Oriental rat fleas living on the black rats that were regular passengers on merchant ships, it spread throughout the Mediterranean and Europe.<br/><br/> The Black Death is estimated to have killed 30–60 percent of Europe's population, reducing the world's population from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and 375 million in the 14th century.<br/><br/> The aftermath of the plague created a series of religious, social and economic upheavals, which had profound effects on the course of European history. It took 150 years for Europe's population to recover. The plague returned at various times, killing more people, until it died out in Europe in the 19th century.
Pedanius Dioscorides (Greek: Πεδάνιος Διοσκουρίδης; circa 40—90 AD) was a Greek physician, pharmacologist and botanist, the author of a 5-volume encyclopedia about herbal medicine and related medicinal substances (a pharmacopeia), that was widely read for well more than a thousand years.<br/><br/> A native of Anazarbus, Cilicia, Asia Minor, Dioscorides practiced in Rome at the time of Nero. He was a surgeon with the army of the emperor, so he had the opportunity to travel extensively, seeking medicinal substances (plants and minerals) from all over the Roman and Greek world.<br/><br/> This miniature painting is from a 12th century Arabic edition of Disocorides' work.
Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Sīnā (Persian پورسينا Pur-e Sina, c. 980, Afshana near Bukhara– 1037, Hamadan, Iran), commonly known as Ibn Sīnā or by his Latinized name Avicenna, was a Persian polymath, who wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. In particular, 150 of his surviving treatises concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine.<br/><br/> His most famous works are 'The Book of Healing', a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopaedia, and 'The Canon of Medicine', which was a standard medical text at many medieval universities. The Canon of Medicine was used as a text-book in the universities of Montpellier and Leuven as late as 1650. Ibn Sīnā's Canon of Medicine provides a complete system of medicine according to the principles of Galen and Hippocrates.<br/><br/> His corpus also includes writing on philosophy, astronomy, alchemy, geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics, as well as poetry. He is regarded as the most famous and influential polymath of the Islamic Golden Age.
Socialist realism is a style of realistic art which was developed in the Soviet Union and became a dominant style in other communist countries. Socialist realism is a teleologically-oriented style having its purpose the furtherance of the goals of socialism and communism. Although related, it should not be confused with social realism, a type of art that realistically depicts subjects of social concern. Unlike social realism, socialist realism often glorifies the roles of the poor.
Socialist realism is a style of realistic art which was developed in the Soviet Union and became a dominant style in other communist countries. Socialist realism is a teleologically-oriented style having its purpose the furtherance of the goals of socialism and communism. Although related, it should not be confused with social realism, a type of art that realistically depicts subjects of social concern. Unlike social realism, socialist realism often glorifies the roles of the poor.
The Tonkin Campaign (French: Campagne du Tonkin) was an armed conflict fought between June 1883 and April 1886 by the French against, variously, the Vietnamese, Liu Yongfu's Black Flag Army and the Chinese Guangxi and Yunnan armies to occupy Tonkin (northern Vietnam) and entrench a French protectorate there.<br/><br/> The campaign, complicated in August 1884 by the outbreak of the Sino-French War and in July 1885 by the Can Vuong nationalist uprising in Annam, which required the diversion of large numbers of French troops, was conducted by the Tonkin Expeditionary Corps, supported by the gunboats of the Tonkin Flotilla. The campaign officially ended in April 1886, when the expeditionary corps was reduced in size to a division of occupation, but Tonkin was not effectively pacified until 1896.
Vietnam's independence was gradually eroded by France in a series of military conquests from 1859 until 1885 when the entire country became part of French Indochina. Significant political and cultural changes were placed on the Vietnamese people, including the propagation of Roman Catholicism. When Emperor Thanh Thai, who was opposed to French colonial rule, was exiled in 1907, the French decided to pass the throne to his son who was only seven years old, because they thought someone so young would be easily influenced and controlled. The boy emperor, Duy Tan, ruled as emperor of the Nguyen Dynasty from 1907 to 1916 before fleeing from Hue to resist the French.
Vietnam's independence was gradually eroded by France in a series of military conquests from 1859 until 1885 when the entire country became part of French Indochina. Significant political and cultural changes were placed on the Vietnamese people, including the propagation of Roman Catholicism. When Emperor Thanh Thai, who was opposed to French colonial rule, was exiled in 1907, the French decided to pass the throne to his son who was only seven years old, because they thought someone so young would be easily influenced and controlled. The boy emperor, Duy Tan, ruled as emperor of the Nguyen Dynasty from 1907 to 1916 before fleeing from Hue to resist the French.
In February 1834, Parker traveled to Canton (now Guangzhou), where he had the distinction of being the first full-time Protestant medical missionary to China. In 1835, he opened the Ophthalmic Hospital, which later became the Guangzhou Boji Hospital (the Canton Hospital). Parker specialized in diseases of the eye, including cataracts, and also resected tumors. Parker also introduced Western anesthesia in the form of sulphuric ether.
Hồ Chí Minh, born Nguyễn Sinh Cung and also known as Nguyễn Ái Quốc (19 May 1890 – 3 September 1969) was a Vietnamese Communist revolutionary leader who was prime minister (1946–1955) and president (1945–1969) of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam).<br/><br/> He formed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and led the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War until his death. Hồ led the Viet Minh independence movement from 1941 onward, establishing the communist-governed Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945 and defeating the French Union in 1954 at Dien Bien Phu.<br/><br/> He lost political power inside North Vietnam in the late 1950s, but remained as the highly visible figurehead president until his death.
Hunayn ibn Ishaq (also Hunain or Hunein) (Syriac: ܚܢܝܢ ܒܪ ܐܝܣܚܩ, Arabic: أبو زيد حنين بن إسحاق العبادي‎; ’Abū Zayd Ḥunayn ibn ’Isḥāq al-‘Ibādī, known in Latin as Johannitius) (809–873) was a famous and influential Assyrian Nestorian Christian scholar, physician, and scientist, known for his work in translating Greek scientific and medical works into Arabic and Syriac during the heyday of the Islamic Abbasid Caliphate.<br/><br/>Ḥunayn ibn Isḥaq was the most productive translator of Greek medical and scientific treatises in his day. He studied Greek and became known among the Arabs as the 'Sheikh of the translators'. He mastered four languages: Arabic, Syriac, Greek and Persian. His translations did not require corrections. Hunayn’s method was widely followed by later translators. He was originally from southern Iraq but he spent his working life in Baghdad, the center of the great ninth-century Greek-into-Arabic/Syriac translation movement.<br/><br/> The Isagoge (Greek: Εἰσαγωγή) or 'Introduction' to Aristotle's 'Categories', written by Porphyry in Greek and translated into Latin by Boethius, was the standard textbook on logic for at least a millennium after his death. It was composed by Porphyry in Sicily during the years 268-270 CE, and sent to Chrysaorium, according to all the ancient commentators Ammonius, Elias, and David. The work includes the highly influential hierarchical classification of genera and species from substance in general down to individuals, known as the Tree of Porphyry, and an introduction which mentions the problem of universals.<br/><br/> Boethius' translation of the work, in Latin, became a standard medieval textbook in European schools and universities, setting the stage for medieval philosophical-theological developments of logic and the problem of universals. Many writers, such as Boethius himself, Averroes, Abelard, Scotus, wrote commentaries on the book. Other writers such as William of Ockham incorporated them into their textbooks on logic.
Alexandre Emile Jean Yersin (September 22, 1863–March 1, 1943) was a Swiss and French physician and bacteriologist. He is remembered as the co-discoverer of the bacillus responsible for the bubonic plague or pest, which was later re-named in his honour (Yersinia pestis).<br/><br/> In order to practice medicine in France, Yersin applied for and obtained French nationality in 1888. Soon afterwards (1890), he left for French Indochina in Southeast Asia as a physician for the Messageries Maritimes company, on the Saigon-Manila line and then on the Saigon-Haiphong line. He participated in one of the Auguste Pavie missions.<br/><br/> Alexandre Yersin is well remembered in Vietnam, where he was affectionately called Ông Năm (Mr. Nam/Fifth) by the people. Following the country's independence, streets named in his honor kept their designation, and his tomb in Suoi Dau was graced by a pagoda where rites are performed in his worship. Yersin's house in Nha Trang is now the Yersin Museum, and the epitaph on his tombstone describes him as a 'Benefactor and humanist, venerated by the Vietnamese people'. At Hanoi (Ha Noi), a French Lycée has his name. A private university founded in 2004 in Da Lat was named 'Yersin University' in his honour.
Muhammad ibn Zakariyā Rāzī (Mohammad-e Zakariā-ye Rāzi: Persian: محمد زکریای رازی), known as Rhazes or Rasis after medieval Latinists, (August 26, 865 – 925) was a Persian polymath, physician, alchemist and chemist, philosopher, and scholar.<br/><br/> Numerous 'firsts' in medical research, clinical care, and chemistry are attributed to him, including being the first to differentiate smallpox from measles, and the discovery of numerous compounds and chemicals including kerosene, among others.<br/><br/> Razi made fundamental and enduring contributions to the fields of medicine, alchemy, music, and philosophy, recorded in over 200 books and articles in various fields of science. He was well-versed in Persian, Greek and Indian medical knowledge and made numerous advances in medicine through his own observations and discoveries.<br/><br/> Educated in music, mathematics, philosophy, and metaphysics, he chose medicine as his professional field. As a physician, he was an early proponent of experimental medicine and has been described as the father of pediatrics. He was also a pioneer of ophthalmology. He was among the first to use Humoralism to distinguish one contagious disease from another. In particular, Razi was the first physician to distinguish between smallpox and measles through his clinical characterization of the two diseases.