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Francois-Marie Arouet (21 November 1694 - 30 May 1778), more commonly known by his <i>nom de plume</i> Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment historian, philosopher and writer. He was famous for his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of speech and separation of church and state, often attacking the Catholic Church through his wit and writings.<br/><br/> Voltaire was a prolific and versatile writer, with more than 20,000 letters and over 2,000 books and pamphlets to his name, as well as plays, poems, essays and historical and scientific works. Despite the strict censorship laws of the time, Voltaire often spoke up in favour of civil liberties, and regularly used satire to criticise intolerance, religious dogma and other pillars of French institutions of his day.
Francois-Marie Arouet (21 November 1694 - 30 May 1778), more commonly known by his <i>nom de plume</i> Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment historian, philosopher and writer. He was famous for his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of speech and separation of church and state, often attacking the Catholic Church through his wit and writings.<br/><br/> Voltaire was a prolific and versatile writer, with more than 20,000 letters and over 2,000 books and pamphlets to his name, as well as plays, poems, essays and historical and scientific works. Despite the strict censorship laws of the time, Voltaire often spoke up in favour of civil liberties, and regularly used satire to criticise intolerance, religious dogma and other pillars of French institutions of his day.
Kano Motonobu (1476-1559 CE) was a Japanese painter born in 1476, in the Kano district (modern-day Shizuoka Prefecture). Motonobu was a member of the Kano school of painting, which was founded by his father, Kano Masanobu, though it was Motonobu that established the distinctive techniques and styles the school would become famous for.<br/><br/> Motonobu's clients were primarily from the imperial court and merchant classes of Kyoto and Sakai, which gave him a lot of political pull and influence, and allowed the Kano school to grow and prosper. His most famous achievement was a new technique of painting known as <i>wa-kan</i>, a mixture of Chinese and Japanese painting styles.<br/><br/> The Kano family would go on to dominate the Japanese painting world from the end of the Muromachi Period all the way through to the end of the Edo Period, their creativity and flexibility allowing them to survive for centuries.
Galileo Galilei (15 Feb. 1564—8 Jan. 1642) was an Italian physicist, mathematician, philosopher and astronomer who played a pivotal role in establishing modern science at a time when contradiction of religion was considered heresy. It was as an astronomer that he was most controversial. Galileo developed telescopes that confirmed the phases of Venus, and the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), as well as sunspots.<br/><br/> In 1610, while a majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric opinion that the Earth was the centre of the universe, Galileo came out in support of Copernicus' heliocentric view that the Sun was at the center of the solar system.<br/><br/> Galileo's opinions were met with outrage and bitter opposition, and he was denounced to the Roman Inquisition. In February 1616, although he had been cleared of any offence, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as 'false and contrary to [Christian] Scripture' and forced Galileo to renounce his scientific conclusions.<br/><br/> However, in 1632, Galileo published 'Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems', in which he again defended heliocentrism. He was tried by the Inquisition, found 'vehemently suspect of heresy', forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Galileo Galilei (15 Feb. 1564—8 Jan. 1642) was an Italian physicist, mathematician, philosopher and astronomer who played a pivotal role in establishing modern science at a time when contradiction of religion was considered heresy. It was as an astronomer that he was most controversial. Galileo developed telescopes that confirmed the phases of Venus, and the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), as well as sunspots.<br/><br/> In 1610, while a majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric opinion that the Earth was the centre of the universe, Galileo came out in support of Copernicus' heliocentric view that the Sun was at the center of the solar system.<br/><br/> Galileo's opinions were met with outrage and bitter opposition, and he was denounced to the Roman Inquisition. In February 1616, although he had been cleared of any offence, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as 'false and contrary to [Christian] Scripture' and forced Galileo to renounce his scientific conclusions.<br/><br/> However, in 1632, Galileo published 'Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems', in which he again defended heliocentrism. He was tried by the Inquisition, found 'vehemently suspect of heresy', forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Galileo Galilei (15 Feb. 1564—8 Jan. 1642) was an Italian physicist, mathematician, philosopher and astronomer who played a pivotal role in establishing modern science at a time when contradiction of religion was considered heresy. It was as an astronomer that he was most controversial. Galileo developed telescopes that confirmed the phases of Venus, and the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), as well as sunspots.<br/><br/> In 1610, while a majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric opinion that the Earth was the centre of the universe, Galileo came out in support of Copernicus' heliocentric view that the Sun was at the center of the solar system.<br/><br/> Galileo's opinions were met with outrage and bitter opposition, and he was denounced to the Roman Inquisition. In February 1616, although he had been cleared of any offence, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as 'false and contrary to [Christian] Scripture' and forced Galileo to renounce his scientific conclusions.<br/><br/> However, in 1632, Galileo published 'Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems', in which he again defended heliocentrism. He was tried by the Inquisition, found 'vehemently suspect of heresy', forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Francois-Marie Arouet (21 November 1694 - 30 May 1778), more commonly known by his <i>nom de plume</i> Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment historian, philosopher and writer. He was famous for his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of speech and separation of church and state, often attacking the Catholic Church through his wit and writings.<br/><br/> Voltaire was a prolific and versatile writer, with more than 20,000 letters and over 2,000 books and pamphlets to his name, as well as plays, poems, essays and historical and scientific works. Despite the strict censorship laws of the time, Voltaire often spoke up in favour of civil liberties, and regularly used satire to criticise intolerance, religious dogma and other pillars of French institutions of his day.
Francois-Marie Arouet (21 November 1694 - 30 May 1778), more commonly known by his <i>nom de plume</i> Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment historian, philosopher and writer. He was famous for his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of speech and separation of church and state, often attacking the Catholic Church through his wit and writings.<br/><br/> Voltaire was a prolific and versatile writer, with more than 20,000 letters and over 2,000 books and pamphlets to his name, as well as plays, poems, essays and historical and scientific works. Despite the strict censorship laws of the time, Voltaire often spoke up in favour of civil liberties, and regularly used satire to criticise intolerance, religious dogma and other pillars of French institutions of his day.
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is either an enlightened (bodhi) existence (sattva) or an enlightenment-being or, given the variant Sanskrit spelling satva rather than sattva, 'heroic-minded one (satva) for enlightenment (bodhi).' Another term is 'wisdom-being.' It is anyone who, motivated by great compassion, has generated bodhicitta, which is a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings.<br/><br/> Perhaps the highest revered temple in Bagan, the Ananda Pagoda was built in 1105 CE during the reign of King Kyanzittha (1084–1113) of the Bagan Dynasty. It is one of four surviving original temples of Bagan (also called Pagan). The temple layout is in a cruciform with several terraces leading to a small pagoda at the top covered by an umbrella (‘hti’).<br/><br/> The Buddhist temple houses four standing Buddhas—facing east, north, west and south. The temple is said to be an architectural wonder in a fusion of Mon and adopted Indian styles of architecture.<br/><br/> It was damaged in the earthquake of 1975. However, it has been fully restored and is well maintained by frequent painting and whitewashing of the walls. On the occasion of the 900th anniversary of its construction celebrated in 1990 the temple spires were gilded.<br/><br/> Bagan, formerly Pagan, was mainly built between the 11th century and 13th century. Formally titled Arimaddanapura or Arimaddana (the City of the Enemy Crusher) and also known as Tambadipa (the Land of Copper) or Tassadessa (the Parched Land), it was the capital of several ancient kingdoms in Burma.
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is either an enlightened (bodhi) existence (sattva) or an enlightenment-being or, given the variant Sanskrit spelling satva rather than sattva, 'heroic-minded one (satva) for enlightenment (bodhi).' Another term is 'wisdom-being.' It is anyone who, motivated by great compassion, has generated bodhicitta, which is a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings.<br/><br/> Perhaps the highest revered temple in Bagan, the Ananda Pagoda was built in 1105 CE during the reign of King Kyanzittha (1084–1113) of the Bagan Dynasty. It is one of four surviving original temples of Bagan (also called Pagan). The temple layout is in a cruciform with several terraces leading to a small pagoda at the top covered by an umbrella (‘hti’).<br/><br/> The Buddhist temple houses four standing Buddhas—facing east, north, west and south. The temple is said to be an architectural wonder in a fusion of Mon and adopted Indian styles of architecture.<br/><br/> It was damaged in the earthquake of 1975. However, it has been fully restored and is well maintained by frequent painting and whitewashing of the walls. On the occasion of the 900th anniversary of its construction celebrated in 1990 the temple spires were gilded.<br/><br/> Bagan, formerly Pagan, was mainly built between the 11th century and 13th century. Formally titled Arimaddanapura or Arimaddana (the City of the Enemy Crusher) and also known as Tambadipa (the Land of Copper) or Tassadessa (the Parched Land), it was the capital of several ancient kingdoms in Burma.
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is either an enlightened (bodhi) existence (sattva) or an enlightenment-being or, given the variant Sanskrit spelling satva rather than sattva, 'heroic-minded one (satva) for enlightenment (bodhi).' Another term is 'wisdom-being.' It is anyone who, motivated by great compassion, has generated bodhicitta, which is a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings.<br/><br/> Perhaps the highest revered temple in Bagan, the Ananda Pagoda was built in 1105 CE during the reign of King Kyanzittha (1084–1113) of the Bagan Dynasty. It is one of four surviving original temples of Bagan (also called Pagan). The temple layout is in a cruciform with several terraces leading to a small pagoda at the top covered by an umbrella (‘hti’).<br/><br/> The Buddhist temple houses four standing Buddhas—facing east, north, west and south. The temple is said to be an architectural wonder in a fusion of Mon and adopted Indian styles of architecture.<br/><br/> It was damaged in the earthquake of 1975. However, it has been fully restored and is well maintained by frequent painting and whitewashing of the walls. On the occasion of the 900th anniversary of its construction celebrated in 1990 the temple spires were gilded.<br/><br/> Bagan, formerly Pagan, was mainly built between the 11th century and 13th century. Formally titled Arimaddanapura or Arimaddana (the City of the Enemy Crusher) and also known as Tambadipa (the Land of Copper) or Tassadessa (the Parched Land), it was the capital of several ancient kingdoms in Burma.
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is either an enlightened (bodhi) existence (sattva) or an enlightenment-being or, given the variant Sanskrit spelling satva rather than sattva, 'heroic-minded one (satva) for enlightenment (bodhi).' Another term is 'wisdom-being.' It is anyone who, motivated by great compassion, has generated bodhicitta, which is a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings.<br/><br/> Perhaps the highest revered temple in Bagan, the Ananda Pagoda was built in 1105 CE during the reign of King Kyanzittha (1084–1113) of the Bagan Dynasty. It is one of four surviving original temples of Bagan (also called Pagan). The temple layout is in a cruciform with several terraces leading to a small pagoda at the top covered by an umbrella (‘hti’).<br/><br/> The Buddhist temple houses four standing Buddhas—facing east, north, west and south. The temple is said to be an architectural wonder in a fusion of Mon and adopted Indian styles of architecture.<br/><br/> It was damaged in the earthquake of 1975. However, it has been fully restored and is well maintained by frequent painting and whitewashing of the walls. On the occasion of the 900th anniversary of its construction celebrated in 1990 the temple spires were gilded.<br/><br/> Bagan, formerly Pagan, was mainly built between the 11th century and 13th century. Formally titled Arimaddanapura or Arimaddana (the City of the Enemy Crusher) and also known as Tambadipa (the Land of Copper) or Tassadessa (the Parched Land), it was the capital of several ancient kingdoms in Burma.
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is either an enlightened (bodhi) existence (sattva) or an enlightenment-being or, given the variant Sanskrit spelling satva rather than sattva, 'heroic-minded one (satva) for enlightenment (bodhi).' Another term is 'wisdom-being.' It is anyone who, motivated by great compassion, has generated bodhicitta, which is a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings.<br/><br/> Perhaps the highest revered temple in Bagan, the Ananda Pagoda was built in 1105 CE during the reign of King Kyanzittha (1084–1113) of the Bagan Dynasty. It is one of four surviving original temples of Bagan (also called Pagan). The temple layout is in a cruciform with several terraces leading to a small pagoda at the top covered by an umbrella (‘hti’).<br/><br/> The Buddhist temple houses four standing Buddhas—facing east, north, west and south. The temple is said to be an architectural wonder in a fusion of Mon and adopted Indian styles of architecture.<br/><br/> It was damaged in the earthquake of 1975. However, it has been fully restored and is well maintained by frequent painting and whitewashing of the walls. On the occasion of the 900th anniversary of its construction celebrated in 1990 the temple spires were gilded.<br/><br/> Bagan, formerly Pagan, was mainly built between the 11th century and 13th century. Formally titled Arimaddanapura or Arimaddana (the City of the Enemy Crusher) and also known as Tambadipa (the Land of Copper) or Tassadessa (the Parched Land), it was the capital of several ancient kingdoms in Burma.
Francois-Marie Arouet (21 November 1694 - 30 May 1778), more commonly known by his <i>nom de plume</i> Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment historian, philosopher and writer. He was famous for his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of speech and separation of church and state, often attacking the Catholic Church through his wit and writings.<br/><br/> Voltaire was a prolific and versatile writer, with more than 20,000 letters and over 2,000 books and pamphlets to his name, as well as plays, poems, essays and historical and scientific works. Despite the strict censorship laws of the time, Voltaire often spoke up in favour of civil liberties, and regularly used satire to criticise intolerance, religious dogma and other pillars of French institutions of his day.
Jiayuguan, the ‘First and Greatest Pass under Heaven’, was completed in 1372 on the orders of Zhu Yuanzhang, the first Ming Emperor (1368-98), to mark the end of the Ming Great Wall. It was also the very limits of Chinese civilisation, and the beginnings of the outer ‘barbarian’ lands.<br/><br/> For centuries the fort was not just of strategic importance to Han Chinese, but of cultural significance as well. This was the last civilised place before the outer darkness, those proceeding beyond, whether disgraced officials or criminals, faced a life of exile among nomadic strangers.<br/><br/> Jiayuguan or Jiayu Pass (literally "Excellent Valley Pass") is the first pass at the west end of the Great Wall of China, near the city of Jiayuguan in Gansu province.
Jiayuguan, the ‘First and Greatest Pass under Heaven’, was completed in 1372 on the orders of Zhu Yuanzhang, the first Ming Emperor (1368-98), to mark the end of the Ming Great Wall. It was also the very limits of Chinese civilisation, and the beginnings of the outer ‘barbarian’ lands.<br/><br/> For centuries the fort was not just of strategic importance to Han Chinese, but of cultural significance as well. This was the last civilised place before the outer darkness, those proceeding beyond, whether disgraced officials or criminals, faced a life of exile among nomadic strangers.<br/><br/> Jiayuguan or Jiayu Pass (literally "Excellent Valley Pass") is the first pass at the west end of the Great Wall of China, near the city of Jiayuguan in Gansu province.
Jiayuguan, the ‘First and Greatest Pass under Heaven’, was completed in 1372 on the orders of Zhu Yuanzhang, the first Ming Emperor (1368-98), to mark the end of the Ming Great Wall. It was also the very limits of Chinese civilisation, and the beginnings of the outer ‘barbarian’ lands.<br/><br/> For centuries the fort was not just of strategic importance to Han Chinese, but of cultural significance as well. This was the last civilised place before the outer darkness, those proceeding beyond, whether disgraced officials or criminals, faced a life of exile among nomadic strangers.<br/><br/> Jiayuguan or Jiayu Pass (literally "Excellent Valley Pass") is the first pass at the west end of the Great Wall of China, near the city of Jiayuguan in Gansu province.
Galileo Galilei (15 Feb. 1564—8 Jan. 1642) was an Italian physicist, mathematician, philosopher and astronomer who played a pivotal role in establishing modern science at a time when contradiction of religion was considered heresy. It was as an astronomer that he was most controversial. Galileo developed telescopes that confirmed the phases of Venus, and the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), as well as sunspots.<br/><br/> In 1610, while a majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric opinion that the Earth was the centre of the universe, Galileo came out in support of Copernicus' heliocentric view that the Sun was at the center of the solar system.<br/><br/> Galileo's opinions were met with outrage and bitter opposition, and he was denounced to the Roman Inquisition. In February 1616, although he had been cleared of any offence, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as 'false and contrary to [Christian] Scripture' and forced Galileo to renounce his scientific conclusions.<br/><br/> However, in 1632, Galileo published 'Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems', in which he again defended heliocentrism. He was tried by the Inquisition, found 'vehemently suspect of heresy', forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Galileo Galilei (15 Feb. 1564—8 Jan. 1642) was an Italian physicist, mathematician, philosopher and astronomer who played a pivotal role in establishing modern science at a time when contradiction of religion was considered heresy. It was as an astronomer that he was most controversial. Galileo developed telescopes that confirmed the phases of Venus, and the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), as well as sunspots.<br/><br/> In 1610, while a majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric opinion that the Earth was the centre of the universe, Galileo came out in support of Copernicus' heliocentric view that the Sun was at the center of the solar system.<br/><br/> Galileo's opinions were met with outrage and bitter opposition, and he was denounced to the Roman Inquisition. In February 1616, although he had been cleared of any offence, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as 'false and contrary to [Christian] Scripture' and forced Galileo to renounce his scientific conclusions.<br/><br/> However, in 1632, Galileo published 'Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems', in which he again defended heliocentrism. He was tried by the Inquisition, found 'vehemently suspect of heresy', forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Jiayuguan, the ‘First and Greatest Pass under Heaven’, was completed in 1372 on the orders of Zhu Yuanzhang, the first Ming Emperor (1368-98), to mark the end of the Ming Great Wall. It was also the very limits of Chinese civilisation, and the beginnings of the outer ‘barbarian’ lands. For centuries the fort was not just of strategic importance to Han Chinese, but of cultural significance as well. This was the last civilised place before the outer darkness, those proceeding beyond, whether disgraced officials or criminals, faced a life of exile among nomadic strangers.<br/><br/> Jiayuguan or Jiayu Pass (literally 'Excellent Valley Pass') is the first pass at the west end of the Great Wall of China, near the city of Jiayuguan in Gansu province.
Galileo Galilei (15 Feb. 1564—8 Jan. 1642) was an Italian physicist, mathematician, philosopher and astronomer who played a pivotal role in establishing modern science at a time when contradiction of religion was considered heresy. It was as an astronomer that he was most controversial. Galileo developed telescopes that confirmed the phases of Venus, and the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), as well as sunspots.<br/><br/> In 1610, while a majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric opinion that the Earth was the centre of the universe, Galileo came out in support of Copernicus' heliocentric view that the Sun was at the center of the solar system.<br/><br/> Galileo's opinions were met with outrage and bitter opposition, and he was denounced to the Roman Inquisition. In February 1616, although he had been cleared of any offence, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as 'false and contrary to [Christian] Scripture' and forced Galileo to renounce his scientific conclusions.<br/><br/> However, in 1632, Galileo published 'Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems', in which he again defended heliocentrism. He was tried by the Inquisition, found 'vehemently suspect of heresy', forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Galileo Galilei (15 Feb. 1564—8 Jan. 1642) was an Italian physicist, mathematician, philosopher and astronomer who played a pivotal role in establishing modern science at a time when contradiction of religion was considered heresy. It was as an astronomer that he was most controversial. Galileo developed telescopes that confirmed the phases of Venus, and the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), as well as sunspots.<br/><br/> In 1610, while a majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric opinion that the Earth was the centre of the universe, Galileo came out in support of Copernicus' heliocentric view that the Sun was at the center of the solar system.<br/><br/> Galileo's opinions were met with outrage and bitter opposition, and he was denounced to the Roman Inquisition. In February 1616, although he had been cleared of any offence, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as 'false and contrary to [Christian] Scripture' and forced Galileo to renounce his scientific conclusions.<br/><br/> However, in 1632, Galileo published 'Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems', in which he again defended heliocentrism. He was tried by the Inquisition, found 'vehemently suspect of heresy', forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Oiran (花é­) were the courtesans of Edo period Japan. The oiran were considered a type of yÅ«jo (éŠå¥³) 'woman of pleasure' or prostitute. However, they were distinguished from the yÅ«jo in that they were entertainers, and many became celebrities of their times outside the pleasure districts. Their art and fashions often set trends among the wealthy and, because of this, cultural aspects of oiran traditions continue to be preserved to this day.<br/><br/> The oiran arose in the Edo period (1600–1868). At this time, laws were passed restricting brothels to walled districts set some distance from the city center. In the major cities these were the Shimabara in Kyoto, the Shinmachi in Osaka, and the Yoshiwara in Edo (present-day Tokyo).<br/><br/> These rapidly grew into large, self-contained 'pleasure quarters' offering all manner of entertainments. Within, a courtesan’s birth rank held no distinction, which was fortunate considering many of the courtesans originated as the daughters of impoverished families who were sold into this lifestyle as indentured servants. Instead, they were categorized based on their beauty, character, education, and artistic ability.<br/><br/> Among the oiran, the tayÅ« (太夫) was considered the highest rank of courtesan and were considered suitable for the daimyo or feudal lords. In the mid-1700s courtesan rankings began to disappear and courtesans of all classes were collectively known simply as 'oiran'.<br/><br/> The word oiran comes from the Japanese phrase oira no tokoro no nÄ“san (ãŠã„らã®æ‰€ã®å§‰ã•) which translates as 'my elder sister'. When written in Japanese, it consists of two kanji, 花 meaning 'flower', and é­ meaning 'leader' or 'first', hence 'Leading Flower' or 'First Flower'.
Galileo Galilei (15 Feb. 1564—8 Jan. 1642) was an Italian physicist, mathematician, philosopher and astronomer who played a pivotal role in establishing modern science at a time when contradiction of religion was considered heresy. It was as an astronomer that he was most controversial. Galileo developed telescopes that confirmed the phases of Venus, and the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), as well as sunspots.<br/><br/> In 1610, while a majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric opinion that the Earth was the centre of the universe, Galileo came out in support of Copernicus' heliocentric view that the Sun was at the center of the solar system.<br/><br/> Galileo's opinions were met with outrage and bitter opposition, and he was denounced to the Roman Inquisition. In February 1616, although he had been cleared of any offence, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as 'false and contrary to [Christian] Scripture' and forced Galileo to renounce his scientific conclusions.<br/><br/> However, in 1632, Galileo published 'Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems', in which he again defended heliocentrism. He was tried by the Inquisition, found 'vehemently suspect of heresy', forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Jiayuguan, the ‘First and Greatest Pass under Heaven’, was completed in 1372 on the orders of Zhu Yuanzhang, the first Ming Emperor (1368-98), to mark the end of the Ming Great Wall. It was also the very limits of Chinese civilisation, and the beginnings of the outer ‘barbarian’ lands.<br/><br/> For centuries the fort was not just of strategic importance to Han Chinese, but of cultural significance as well. This was the last civilised place before the outer darkness, those proceeding beyond, whether disgraced officials or criminals, faced a life of exile among nomadic strangers.<br/><br/> Jiayuguan or Jiayu Pass (literally "Excellent Valley Pass") is the first pass at the west end of the Great Wall of China, near the city of Jiayuguan in Gansu province.
Jiayuguan, the ‘First and Greatest Pass under Heaven’, was completed in 1372 on the orders of Zhu Yuanzhang, the first Ming Emperor (1368-98), to mark the end of the Ming Great Wall. It was also the very limits of Chinese civilisation, and the beginnings of the outer ‘barbarian’ lands.<br/><br/> For centuries the fort was not just of strategic importance to Han Chinese, but of cultural significance as well. This was the last civilised place before the outer darkness, those proceeding beyond, whether disgraced officials or criminals, faced a life of exile among nomadic strangers.<br/><br/> Jiayuguan or Jiayu Pass (literally "Excellent Valley Pass") is the first pass at the west end of the Great Wall of China, near the city of Jiayuguan in Gansu province.
Jiayuguan, the ‘First and Greatest Pass under Heaven’, was completed in 1372 on the orders of Zhu Yuanzhang, the first Ming Emperor (1368-98), to mark the end of the Ming Great Wall. It was also the very limits of Chinese civilisation, and the beginnings of the outer ‘barbarian’ lands.<br/><br/> For centuries the fort was not just of strategic importance to Han Chinese, but of cultural significance as well. This was the last civilised place before the outer darkness, those proceeding beyond, whether disgraced officials or criminals, faced a life of exile among nomadic strangers.<br/><br/> Jiayuguan or Jiayu Pass (literally "Excellent Valley Pass") is the first pass at the west end of the Great Wall of China, near the city of Jiayuguan in Gansu province.
Francois-Marie Arouet (21 November 1694 - 30 May 1778), more commonly known by his <i>nom de plume</i> Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment historian, philosopher and writer. He was famous for his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of speech and separation of church and state, often attacking the Catholic Church through his wit and writings.<br/><br/> Voltaire was a prolific and versatile writer, with more than 20,000 letters and over 2,000 books and pamphlets to his name, as well as plays, poems, essays and historical and scientific works. Despite the strict censorship laws of the time, Voltaire often spoke up in favour of civil liberties, and regularly used satire to criticise intolerance, religious dogma and other pillars of French institutions of his day.