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Frederick II (1194-1250) was the son of Emperor Henry VI, and was only an infant when crowned King of Sicily by his mother in 1198. When his mother died the same year, he was given to Pope Innocent III, who became his guardian.<br/><br/> When Frederick came of age in 1208, he asserted his power over Sicily. Emperor Otto IV invaded Italy in 1209, hoping to conquer Sicily and bring Frederick to heel, but in 1211, Frederick was elected in absentia as King of Germany by various imperial princes fed up with Otto's rule. Frederick entered Germany with a small army and was formally crowned King of Germany in 1212. He became undisputed ruler in 1215 after Otto's abdication, and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1220.<br/><br/> Frederick fought often with the papacy, and was excommunicated four times, even once being called an Antichrist. He became King of Jerusalem in 1225 through the Sixth Crusade, marrying Yolande of Jerusalem, heiress to the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Frederick spoke six languages and was an avid patron of science and the arts, as well as a religious sceptic. He was the first king to explicitly outlaw trials by ordeal, considering them irrational. He fell ill and died peacefully in 1250, the Hohenstaufen dynasty perishing very soon afterwards.
Otto IV (1175-1218) was the third son of the rebellious Duke Henry the Lion, as well as being the nephew and foster son of King Richard Lionheart of England. He was born and raised in England by Richard, and therefore many consider him the first foreign king of Germany. When Emperor Henry VI died in 1197, some of the princes opposed to the Staufen dynasty elected Otto as anti-king in 1198.<br/><br/> Pope Innocent III (1160 or 1161 – 16 July 1216), born Lotario dei Conti di Segni (anglicized as Lothar of Segni) reigned from 8 January 1198 to his death in 1216. He was one of the most powerful and influential of the medieval popes. He exerted a wide influence over the Christian states of Europe, claiming supremacy over all of Europe's kings.
Otto IV (1175-1218) was the third son of the rebellious Duke Henry the Lion, as well as being the nephew and foster son of King Richard Lionheart of England. He was born and raised in England by Richard, and therefore many consider him the first foreign king of Germany. When Emperor Henry VI died in 1197, some of the princes opposed to the Staufen dynasty elected Otto as anti-king in 1198.<br/><br/> Otto's election sparked a civil war between himself and Philip of Swabia, brother of Emperor Henry and true claimant to the crown of Germany. Otto's forces were initially victorious, but his situation eventually worsened and by 1207, Philip had all but won. His sudden murder a year later changed things considerably however, with Otto quickly becoming the recognised King of Germany, King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor by 1209.
Henry of Germany (1211-1242) was the only son of Emperor Frederick II with his first wife Constance of Aragon, and elder brother to future king Conrad IV. Henry was crowned King of Sicily in 1212, so that Frederick could pursue his claim to the crown of Germany, as an agreement between Frederick and Pope Innocent III had specified that Germany and Sicily should not be united under one ruler.<br/><br/> When the Pope died in 1216, Frederick reassumed the title of King of Sicily a year later and made Henry the Duke of Swabia instead. Henry was crowned as King of Germany in 1222, co-ruling with his father. He began to fall out with his father, his brash treatment against the imperial princes angering his father, who feared their discontent and was reliant on their support. Henry was outlawed by his father in 1234, resulting in him revolting, but he was brought to heel and forced to submit to his father in 1235. A trial saw him dethroned and stripped of his titles and holdings, with the crown and titles going to his younger brother Conrad.<br/><br/> Henry was imprisoned in various places for the last years of his life, finally dying in 1242 after falling from his horse while being moved to another location. Henry is numbered only in parentheses as he did not exercise sole kingship, and so as to not confuse him with the later Emperor Henry VII.
Frederick II (1194-1250) was the son of Emperor Henry VI, and was only an infant when crowned King of Sicily by his mother in 1198. When his mother died the same year, he was given to Pope Innocent III, who became his guardian.<br/><br/> When Frederick came of age in 1208, he asserted his power over Sicily. Emperor Otto IV invaded Italy in 1209, hoping to conquer Sicily and bring Frederick to heel, but in 1211, Frederick was elected in absentia as King of Germany by various imperial princes fed up with Otto's rule. Frederick entered Germany with a small army and was formally crowned King of Germany in 1212. He became undisputed ruler in 1215 after Otto's abdication, and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1220.<br/><br/> Frederick fought often with the papacy, and was excommunicated four times, even once being called an Antichrist. He became King of Jerusalem in 1225 through the Sixth Crusade, marrying Yolande of Jerusalem, heiress to the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Frederick spoke six languages and was an avid patron of science and the arts, as well as a religious sceptic. He was the first king to explicitly outlaw trials by ordeal, considering them irrational. He fell ill and died peacefully in 1250, the Hohenstaufen dynasty perishing very soon afterwards.
Frederick II (1194-1250) was the son of Emperor Henry VI, and was only an infant when crowned King of Sicily by his mother in 1198. When his mother died the same year, he was given to Pope Innocent III, who became his guardian.<br/><br/> When Frederick came of age in 1208, he asserted his power over Sicily. Emperor Otto IV invaded Italy in 1209, hoping to conquer Sicily and bring Frederick to heel, but in 1211, Frederick was elected in absentia as King of Germany by various imperial princes fed up with Otto's rule. Frederick entered Germany with a small army and was formally crowned King of Germany in 1212. He became undisputed ruler in 1215 after Otto's abdication, and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1220.<br/><br/> Frederick fought often with the papacy, and was excommunicated four times, even once being called an Antichrist. He became King of Jerusalem in 1225 through the Sixth Crusade, marrying Yolande of Jerusalem, heiress to the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Frederick spoke six languages and was an avid patron of science and the arts, as well as a religious sceptic. He was the first king to explicitly outlaw trials by ordeal, considering them irrational. He fell ill and died peacefully in 1250, the Hohenstaufen dynasty perishing very soon afterwards.
Otto IV (1175-1218) was the third son of the rebellious Duke Henry the Lion, as well as being the nephew and foster son of King Richard Lionheart of England. He was born and raised in England by Richard, and therefore many consider him the first foreign king of Germany. When Emperor Henry VI died in 1197, some of the princes opposed to the Staufen dynasty elected Otto as anti-king in 1198.
Henry VI (1165-1197) was the second son of Emperor Frederick I, and married the daughter of the late Norman king Roger II of Sicily, Constance of Sicily, in 1186. When his father died in 1190, he became King of Germany and Holy Roman Emperor in 1191.<br/><br/> In 1193, Henry had a stroke of good fortune when he was handed a prominent prisoner by Duke Leopold V of Austria, none other than King Richard the Lionheart of England himself, on his way back from the Third Crusade. Richard had supported the claims of Tancred of Lecce, a rival claimant to the crown of Sicily, which had infuriated Henry. He ransomed the king for a hefty price and used him as a bargaining chip against his rival princes, making him a vassal and ally as well as making the Holy Roman Empire a mediating voice between England and France.
Henry VI (1165-1197) was the second son of Emperor Frederick I, and married the daughter of the late Norman king Roger II of Sicily, Constance of Sicily, in 1186. When his father died in 1190, he became King of Germany and Holy Roman Emperor in 1191.
Frederick I (1122-1190), also known as Frederick Barbarossa, was the nephew of German king Conrad III, and became Duke of Swabia in 1147. When Conrad died in 1152, he named Frederick as his successor on his deathbed, rather than his own son, Frederick IV of Swabia. He was later crowned King of Italy and Holy Roman emperor in 1155, as well as being proclaimed King of Burgundy in 1178.<br/><br/> Frederick was given the name Barbarossa ('red beard') by the northern Italian cities he attempted to conquer, waging six campaigns in all to subsume Italy, struggling constantly with the various popes and interference from the Byzantine Empire. Frederick embarked on the Third Crusade in 1189, after his sixth and final Italian expedition ended in success, a massive campaign in conjunction with the French King Philip Augustus and the English King Richard the Lionheart.<br/><br/> Before Frederick even arrived in Jerusalem however, he drowned in the Saleph river in 1190, leaving the German army in a state of chaos and ultimately leading to the dissolution of the Crusader army. He was considered an exceptionally charismatic leader and one of the Holy Roman Empire's greatest mediaeval emperors, with his contributions including the reestablishment of the 'Corpus Juris Civilis' (Roman rule of law). His qualities were considered almost superhuman by some, his ambition, longevity, organisational skills, battlefield acumen and political perspicuity all adding to his reputation.
Frederick I (1122-1190), also known as Frederick Barbarossa, was the nephew of German king Conrad III, and became Duke of Swabia in 1147. When Conrad died in 1152, he named Frederick as his successor on his deathbed, rather than his own son, Frederick IV of Swabia. He was later crowned King of Italy and Holy Roman emperor in 1155, as well as being proclaimed King of Burgundy in 1178.<br/><br/> Frederick was given the name Barbarossa ('red beard') by the northern Italian cities he attempted to conquer, waging six campaigns in all to subsume Italy, struggling constantly with the various popes and interference from the Byzantine Empire. Frederick embarked on the Third Crusade in 1189, after his sixth and final Italian expedition ended in success, a massive campaign in conjunction with the French King Philip Augustus and the English King Richard the Lionheart.<br/><br/> Before Frederick arrived in Jerusalem however, he drowned in the Saleph river in 1190, leaving the German army in a state of chaos and ultimately leading to the dissolution of the Crusader army. He was considered an exceptionally charismatic leader and one of the Holy Roman Empire's greatest mediaeval emperors, with his contributions including the reestablishment of the 'Corpus Juris Civilis' (Roman rule of law). His qualities were considered almost superhuman by some, his ambition, longevity, organisational skills, battlefield acumen and political perspicuity all adding to his reputation.
Henry V (1081/1086-1125) was the son of Emperor Henry IV, and in 1099 was crowned King of Germany and his true successor in place of his older brother Conrad, who had rebelled against their father. Henry took an oath of non-interference in imperial matters while his father ruled, but he was persuaded by his father's enemies to revolt in 1104, forcing his father to abdicate in 1105 and making Henry sole ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.
Philip (1177-1208), also known as Philip of Swabia, was the youngest son of Emperor Frederick I and younger brother of Emperor Henry VI. Philip was originally prepared for a life in the clergy, but he forsook his ecclesiastical calling in 1191 after travelling to Italy, and was made Duke of Tuscany in 1195, as well as becoming Duke of Swabia in 1196 after the death of his brother Conrad. He married Princess Irene Angelina, daughter of Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelos in 1197.
Henry VI (1165-1197) was the second son of Emperor Frederick I, and married the daughter of the late Norman king Roger II of Sicily, Constance of Sicily, in 1186. When his father died in 1190, he became King of Germany and Holy Roman Emperor in 1191.
Henry VI (1165-1197) was the second son of Emperor Frederick I, and married the daughter of the late Norman king Roger II of Sicily, Constance of Sicily, in 1186. When his father died in 1190, he became King of Germany and Holy Roman Emperor in 1191.
Frederick I (1122-1190), also known as Frederick Barbarossa, was the nephew of German king Conrad III, and became Duke of Swabia in 1147. When Conrad died in 1152, he named Frederick as his successor on his deathbed, rather than his own son, Frederick IV of Swabia. He was later crowned King of Italy and Holy Roman emperor in 1155, as well as being proclaimed King of Burgundy in 1178.<br/><br/> Frederick was given the name Barbarossa ('red beard') by the northern Italian cities he attempted to conquer, waging six campaigns in all to subsume Italy, struggling constantly with the various popes and interference from the Byzantine Empire. Frederick embarked on the Third Crusade in 1189, after his sixth and final Italian expedition ended in success, a massive campaign in conjunction with the French King Philip Augustus and the English King Richard the Lionheart.<br/><br/> Before Frederick arrived in Jerusalem however, he drowned in the Saleph river in 1190, leaving the German army in a state of chaos and ultimately leading to the dissolution of the Crusader army. He was considered an exceptionally charismatic leader and one of the Holy Roman Empire's greatest mediaeval emperors, with his contributions including the reestablishment of the 'Corpus Juris Civilis' (Roman rule of law). His qualities were considered almost superhuman by some, his ambition, longevity, organisational skills, battlefield acumen and political perspicuity all adding to his reputation.
Frederick I (1122-1190), also known as Frederick Barbarossa, was the nephew of German king Conrad III, and became Duke of Swabia in 1147. When Conrad died in 1152, he named Frederick as his successor on his deathbed, rather than his own son, Frederick IV of Swabia. He was later crowned King of Italy and Holy Roman emperor in 1155, as well as being proclaimed King of Burgundy in 1178.<br/><br/> Frederick was given the name Barbarossa ('red beard') by the northern Italian cities he attempted to conquer, waging six campaigns in all to subsume Italy, struggling constantly with the various popes and interference from the Byzantine Empire. Frederick embarked on the Third Crusade in 1189, after his sixth and final Italian expedition ended in success, a massive campaign in conjunction with the French King Philip Augustus and the English King Richard the Lionheart.<br/><br/> Before Frederick arrived in Jerusalem however, he drowned in the Saleph river in 1190, leaving the German army in a state of chaos and ultimately leading to the dissolution of the Crusader army. He was considered an exceptionally charismatic leader and one of the Holy Roman Empire's greatest mediaeval emperors, with his contributions including the reestablishment of the 'Corpus Juris Civilis' (Roman rule of law). His qualities were considered almost superhuman by some, his ambition, longevity, organisational skills, battlefield acumen and political perspicuity all adding to his reputation.
Henry V (1081/1086-1125) was the son of Emperor Henry IV, and in 1099 was crowned King of Germany and his true successor in place of his older brother Conrad, who had rebelled against their father. Henry took an oath of non-interference in imperial matters while his father ruled, but he was persuaded by his father's enemies to revolt in 1104, forcing his father to abdicate in 1105 and making Henry sole ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.
Henry V (1081/1086-1125) was the son of Emperor Henry IV, and in 1099 was crowned King of Germany and his true successor in place of his older brother Conrad, who had rebelled against their father. Henry took an oath of non-interference in imperial matters while his father ruled, but he was persuaded by his father's enemies to revolt in 1104, forcing his father to abdicate in 1105 and making Henry sole ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.
Henry IV (1050-1106), son of Emperor Henry III, was crowned King of Germany in 1056 after his father's death, though his young age meant his mother ruled as regent in his stead. He was kidnapped in the Coup of Kaiserswerth in 1062, a conspiracy led by the Archbishop of Cologne Anno II, who ruled the Holy Roman Empire while supervising over Henry's education and training.<br/><br/> When Anno was absent from Germany for a period, Henry managed to wrest back control of the government, and spent much of his reign consolidating his imperial power. The Investiture Controversy occurred during his rule, one of the most significant conflicts between Church and state in mediaeval Europe. Several civil wars were also waged over his throne, in both Germany and Italy, and while launching a third punitive expdition into Italy in 1093, Henry's son Conrad turned against him, crowned as King of Italy by one of Henry's fiercest foes, Matilda of Tuscany.<br/><br/> Henry finally formally deposed Conrad in 1098 and named his younger son Henry V as his successor. However, Henry V later also turned on his father in 1104, encouraged by the pope who had once again excommunicated his father. He was imprisoned and forced to resign his crown, though he escaped in 1106 and began to amass considerable support to his name. He defeated his son, but died soon afterwards from an illness. Henry was one of the most powerful and important figures of the 11th century.
Henry III (1016-1056), also known as Henry the Black and Henry the Pious, was the eldest son of Emperor Conrad II and a member of the Salian Dynasty. He was elected and crowned as King of Germany in 1028, after his father became Holy Roman Emperor. In 1026, his father made him Duke of Bavaria.<br/><br/> Henry would also became Duke of Swabia and King of Burgundy ten years later in 1038, and when his father died in 1039, he became sole ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, though was not crowned as emperor until 1046.
Henry III (1016-1056), also known as Henry the Black and Henry the Pious, was the eldest son of Emperor Conrad II and a member of the Salian Dynasty. He was elected and crowned as King of Germany in 1028, after his father became Holy Roman Emperor. In 1026, his father made him Duke of Bavaria.<br/><br/> Henry would also became Duke of Swabia and King of Burgundy ten years later in 1038, and when his father died in 1039, he became sole ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, though was not crowned as emperor until 1046.
Conrad II (990-1039), also known as Conrad the Elder and Conrad the Salic, was the son of Count Henry of Speyer and inherited the titles of Count of Speyer and Worms as an infant after his father's death. He became powerful and influential with the princes of Germany, and was elected to King of Germany after the death of the childless Emperor Henry II in 1024.
Conrad I (881-918), also known as Conrad of Germany and Conrad the Younger, was the son of Duke Conrad of Thuringia and a maternal relative of Emperor Arnulf of Carinthia. After conflict with the rival Babenbergian dukes led to the death of his father, Conrad became duke of Franconia.<br/><br/> When King Louis the Child died in 911, Conrad became the first non-Carolingian king of East Francia. Conrad soon found that, since he had been a duke himself, establishing his authority over the dukes became a rather difficult proposition, with the various dukes either making great demands of him or rebelling against his rule at various times.<br/><br/> It was while trying to put down one of his errant dukes, Duke Arnulf of Bavaria, that Conrad received a severe injury which would lead to his death in December 918. On his deathbed Conrad managed to persuade his younger brother Eberhard of Franconia to give the crown to Duke Henry the Fowler of Saxony, believing him to be the only man who could hold East Francia together.
Louis III (880-928), also known as Louis the Blind, was the son of Boso, usurper king of Provence, and Ermengard, daughter of Emperor Louis II, making him a Carolingian through his mother. He succeeded to his father's throne in 887, aged seven. They moved to the court of Emperor Charles the Fat, where Louis was adopted as his son. In 890, Louis was proclaimed King of Arles, Provence and Cisjurane Burgundy.
Arnulf (850-899), also known as Arnulf of Carinthia, was the illegitimate son of King Carloman of Bavaria and nephew of Emperor Charles the Fat. Arnulf became Duke of Carinthia, and more or less ruled Bavaria as well. Arnulf's ambition led him to lead a bloodless revolt in 887 that saw his uncle deposed as emperor and Arnulf crowned as King of East Francia.<br/><br/> Arnulf was a warrior king rather than a diplomatic one, constantly battling the Slavs, Danes and Normans. He took advantage of internal strife in West Francia to secure the territory of Lotharingia, giving it to his son. He intervened constantly in West Francia, playing the different king claimants against each other to secure more territory for himself. He invaded Italy in 894 at the pope's behest, becoming King of Italy. He was later crowned Holy Roman emperor in 896.<br/><br/> Arnulf suffered a stroke while campaigning against his rivals in Italy, and he had to retreat back to Bavaria, soon losing control of Italy. He died in December 899, with the crown to East Francia passing to his only legitimate son, Louis the Child, last of the east Frankish branch of the Carolingian dynasty.
Arnulf (850-899), also known as Arnulf of Carinthia, was the illegitimate son of King Carloman of Bavaria and nephew of Emperor Charles the Fat. Arnulf became Duke of Carinthia, and more or less ruled Bavaria as well. Arnulf's ambition led him to lead a bloodless revolt in 887 that saw his uncle deposed as emperor and Arnulf crowned as King of East Francia.<br/><br/> Arnulf was a warrior king rather than a diplomatic one, constantly battling the Slavs, Danes and Normans. He took advantage of internal strife in West Francia to secure the territory of Lotharingia, giving it to his son. He intervened constantly in West Francia, playing the different king claimants against each other to secure more territory for himself. He invaded Italy in 894 at the pope's behest, becoming King of Italy. He was later crowned Holy Roman emperor in 896.<br/><br/> Arnulf suffered a stroke while campaigning against his rivals in Italy, and he had to retreat back to Bavaria, soon losing control of Italy. He died in December 899, with the crown to East Francia passing to his only legitimate son, Louis the Child, last of the east Frankish branch of the Carolingian dynasty.
Charles III (839-888), more commonly known as Charles the Fat, was the youngest son of Louis the German, King of East Francia, and great-grandson of Emperor Charlemagne. Following the division of East Francia among Louis' sons, Charles inherited Alamannia in 876, but soon inherited the Kingdom of Italy in 876 after his older brother Carloman of Bavaria abdicated.<br/><br/> Charles was eventually crowned as Holy Roman emperor in 881, and succeeded his brother Louis the Younger as king of Saxony and Bavaria a year later, reuniting the Kingdom of East Francia. He was forced to deal with the Great Heathen Army, a large force of Vikings that had been repelled from Britain by King Alfred the Great in 878, something he dealt with through assassination and bribery. After his cousin Carloman II died in 884, Charles also inherited all of West Francia, reuniting the Carolingian Empire under his reign.<br/><br/> Charles' reunited kingdom did not last long, as a coup in November 887 led by his nephew Arnulf of Carinthia eventually deposed him. He was forced to retire, and soon died of natural causes a year later in January 888, only weeks after his deposition. The Carolingian Empire soon fell apart after his death, split into five successor kingdoms.
Charles II (823-877), more commonly nicknamed Charles the Bald, was the son of Emperor Louis the Pious from his second wife. It was his mother's attempts to ensure Charles was included in Louis' succession plans that led to the multiple civil wars by Charles' half-brothers against his father.<br/><br/> When Charles' father died in 840, another civil war broke out between the emperor's sons, with Charles allying himself with his half-brother Louis the German against the new emperor, Lothair I. They defeated Lothair in 841, and cemented their alliance with the Oaths of Strasbourg and the Treaty of Verdun in 843, where he received the Kingdom of West Francia. His reign was peaceful for many years until 858, when Louis the German invaded West Francia, invited by disaffected nobles wanting to get rid of Charles. Louis the German was eventually repulsed, but other matters preoccupied Charles, such as unsuccessful attempts to seize the kingdoms of his nephews or the repeated rebellions and attacks by the Bretons and Vikings.<br/><br/> When Emperor Louis II died in 875, Charles became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Louis the German, furious he was not chosen, retaliated by invading and devastating Charles' lands, though he died a year later. While travelling back from Italy to defend his lands from his nephew Carloman, son of Louis the German, Charles fell ill and died in 877, with his son Louis the Stammerer (846-879) succeeding him as King of West Francia but not as emperor.
Charles II (823-877), more commonly nicknamed Charles the Bald, was the son of Emperor Louis the Pious from his second wife. It was his mother's attempts to ensure Charles was included in Louis' succession plans that led to the multiple civil wars by Charles' half-brothers against his father.<br/><br/> When Charles' father died in 840, another civil war broke out between the emperor's sons, with Charles allying himself with his half-brother Louis the German against the new emperor, Lothair I. They defeated Lothair in 841, and cemented their alliance with the Oaths of Strasbourg and the Treaty of Verdun in 843, where he received the Kingdom of West Francia. His reign was peaceful for many years until 858, when Louis the German invaded West Francia, invited by disaffected nobles wanting to get rid of Charles. Louis the German was eventually repulsed, but other matters preoccupied Charles, such as unsuccessful attempts to seize the kingdoms of his nephews or the repeated rebellions and attacks by the Bretons and Vikings.<br/><br/> When Emperor Louis II died in 875, Charles became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Louis the German, furious he was not chosen, retaliated by invading and devastating Charles' lands, though he died a year later. While travelling back from Italy to defend his lands from his nephew Carloman, son of Louis the German, Charles fell ill and died in 877, with his son Louis the Stammerer (846-879) succeeding him as King of West Francia but not as emperor.
Lothair I (795-855), also known as Lothar I, was the eldest son of Emperor Louis the Pious and grew up in the court of his grandfather, Emperor Charlemagne. When Louis became sole emperor in 814, he sent Lothair to govern Bavaria in 815. Lothair was crowned as co-emperor and declared as principal heir in 817, and would be overlord to his younger brothers, Pippin of Aquitaine and Louis the German, as well as his cousin Bernard of Italy.<br/><br/> When his father died in 840, Lothair ignored all previous plans for partitioning and claimed the whole of the Holy Roman Empire for himself, leading to another civil war which lasted around three years.
Lothair I (795-855), also known as Lothar I, was the eldest son of Emperor Louis the Pious and grew up in the court of his grandfather, Emperor Charlemagne. When Louis became sole emperor in 814, he sent Lothair to govern Bavaria in 815. Lothair was crowned as co-emperor and declared as principal heir in 817, and would be overlord to his younger brothers, Pippin of Aquitaine and Louis the German, as well as his cousin Bernard of Italy.<br/><br/> Lothair lost Bavaria to Louis the German, but he assumed the government of Italy in 822, having received the kingdom after his father had murdered Bernard. Strife and disagreement began to brew after his stepmother Judith began securing a kingdom for her son Charles, Lothair's half-brother, leading to Lothair plotting a rebellion alongside his true brothers against his father in 830, successfully deposing him. His father regianed the throne a year later however, and stripped Lothair of his imperial title and lands, giving them to Charles. A second rebellion in 833 saw Lothair regaining Italy and his imperial position.<br/><br/> When his father died in 840, Lothair ignored all previous plans for partitioning and claimed the whole of the Holy Roman Empire for himself, leading to another civil war which lasted around three years. Lothair was defeated by his brothers, and the Treaty of Verdun was signed in 843 which saw the empire divided between them once again. Lothair became seriously ill in 855 and renounced his throne to his three sons, entering the monastery of Prum and dying six days later.
Charles III (839-888), more commonly known as Charles the Fat, was the youngest son of Louis the German, King of East Francia, and great-grandson of Emperor Charlemagne. Following the division of East Francia among Louis' sons, Charles inherited Alamannia in 876, but soon inherited the Kingdom of Italy in 876 after his older brother Carloman of Bavaria abdicated.<br/><br/> Charles was eventually crowned as Holy Roman emperor in 881, and succeeded his brother Louis the Younger as king of Saxony and Bavaria a year later, reuniting the Kingdom of East Francia. He was forced to deal with the Great Heathen Army, a large force of Vikings that had been repelled from Britain by King Alfred the Great in 878, something he dealt with through assassination and bribery. After his cousin Carloman II died in 884, Charles also inherited all of West Francia, reuniting the Carolingian Empire under his reign.<br/><br/> Charles' reunited kingdom did not last long, as a coup in November 887 led by his nephew Arnulf of Carinthia eventually deposed him. He was forced to retire, and soon died of natural causes a year later in January 888, only weeks after his deposition. The Carolingian Empire soon fell apart after his death, split into five successor kingdoms.
Charles III (839-888), more commonly known as Charles the Fat, was the youngest son of Louis the German, King of East Francia, and great-grandson of Emperor Charlemagne. Following the division of East Francia among Louis' sons, Charles inherited Alamannia in 876, but soon inherited the Kingdom of Italy in 876 after his older brother Carloman of Bavaria abdicated.<br/><br/> Charles was eventually crowned as Holy Roman emperor in 881, and succeeded his brother Louis the Younger as king of Saxony and Bavaria a year later, reuniting the Kingdom of East Francia. He was forced to deal with the Great Heathen Army, a large force of Vikings that had been repelled from Britain by King Alfred the Great in 878, something he dealt with through assassination and bribery. After his cousin Carloman II died in 884, Charles also inherited all of West Francia, reuniting the Carolingian Empire under his reign.<br/><br/> Charles' reunited kingdom did not last long, as a coup in November 887 led by his nephew Arnulf of Carinthia eventually deposed him. He was forced to retire, and soon died of natural causes a year later in January 888, only weeks after his deposition. The Carolingian Empire soon fell apart after his death, split into five successor kingdoms.
Louis I (778-840), also known as Louis the Pious, Louis the Fair and Louis the Debonaire, was the sole surviving adult son of Emperor Charlemagne and Hildegard. Louis ruled from Aquitaine, charged by his father with defending the empire's southwestern frontier from the Muslims of Spain. He conquered Barcelona in 801 and asserted Frankish dominance over Pamplona and the Basques south of the Pyrenees in 812. He was named as co-emperor and King of the Franks by his father in 813, before becoming sole ruler in 814.<br/><br/> When he became sole emperor, he appointed his adult sons Lothair, Pepin and Louis to roles in his government, seeking to establish a suitable division of the realm among them. Several embarrassments and tragedies marred his first decade of rule however, including his brutal treatment of his nephew Bernard of Italy, for which he atoned in a public act of self-debasement. In the 830s, the Holy Roman Empire was beset by various civil wars between Louis' sons, made worse when he tried to include his son Charles by his second wife into his succession plans.<br/><br/> Louis was deposed from 833-834, but soon regained his throne and largely restored order to the empire. He died in 840, and three years of civil war followed his death. Ultimately, Louis is generally compared unfavourably to his legendary father, though his reign faced distinctly different problems.
Louis I (778-840), also known as Louis the Pious, Louis the Fair and Louis the Debonaire, was the sole surviving adult son of Emperor Charlemagne and Hildegard. Louis ruled from Aquitaine, charged by his father with defending the empire's southwestern frontier from the Muslims of Spain. He conquered Barcelona in 801 and asserted Frankish dominance over Pamplona and the Basques south of the Pyrenees in 812. He was named as co-emperor and King of the Franks by his father in 813, before becoming sole ruler in 814.<br/><br/> When he became sole emperor, he appointed his adult sons Lothair, Pepin and Louis to roles in his government, seeking to establish a suitable division of the realm among them. Several embarrassments and tragedies marred his first decade of rule however, including his brutal tratment of his newphew Bernard of Italy, for which he atoned in a public act of self-debasement. In the 830s, the Holy Roman Empire was beset by various civil wars between Louis' sons, made worse when he tried to include his son Charles by his second wife into his succession plans.<br/><br/> Louis was deposed from 833-834, but soon regained his throne and largely restored order to the empire. He died in 840, and three years of civil war followed his death. Ultimately, Louis is generally compared unfavourably to his legendary father, though his reign faced distinctly different problems.
Charlemagne (742/747/748-814), also known as Charles the Great or Charles I was the eldest child of King of the Franks, Pepin the Short. He took the Frankish throne after his father's death in 768, initially co-ruling with his brother Carloman I, who died in 771, leaving Charlemagne as undisputed ruler of the Franks.<br/><br/> Charlemagne considered himself a protector of the papacy, and invaded northern Italy to remove the Lombards from power, becoming King of Italy in 774. He also led incursions into Muslim Spain and campaigned against the Saxons of the east, Christianising them upon penalty of death, resulting in events such as the Massacre of Verden. Uniting large swathes of Western Europe during the early Middle Ages, Charlemagne reached the height of his power when he was crowned 'Emperor of the Romans' in 800, recognised as the true successor of the Roman emperors of old.<br/><br/> Now ruling as Holy Roman emperor, Charlemagne's conquests instigated the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of enlightenment and cultural activity for the Western Church. The Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Orthodox Church viewed him more controversially however, with Empress Irene actively supporting Charlemagne's rivals. Charlemagne eventually died in 814, ruling as emperor for just over thirteen years, and was laid to rest in his imperial capital of Aachen, in modern-day Germany. He is often called the 'Father of Europe' (<i>Pater Europae</i>).
Charlemagne (742/747/748-814), also known as Charles the Great or Charles I was the eldest child of King of the Franks, Pepin the Short. He took the Frankish throne after his father's death in 768, initially co-ruling with his brother Carloman I, who died in 771, leaving Charlemagne as undisputed ruler of the Franks.<br/><br/> Charlemagne considered himself a protector of the papacy, and invaded northern Italy to remove the Lombards from power, becoming King of Italy in 774. He also led incursions into Muslim Spain and campaigned against the Saxons of the east, Christianising them upon penalty of death, resulting in events such as the Massacre of Verden. Uniting large swathes of Western Europe during the early Middle Ages, Charlemagne reached the height of his power when he was crowned 'Emperor of the Romans' in 800, recognised as the true successor of the Roman emperors of old.<br/><br/> Now ruling as Holy Roman emperor, Charlemagne's conquests instigated the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of enlightenment and cultural activity for the Western Church. The Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Orthodox Church viewed him more controversially however, with Empress Irene actively supporting Charlemagne's rivals. Charlemagne eventually died in 814, ruling as emperor for just over thirteen years, and was laid to rest in his imperial capital of Aachen, in modern-day Germany. He is often called the 'Father of Europe' (<i>Pater Europae</i>).
Charlemagne (742/747/748-814), also known as Charles the Great or Charles I was the eldest child of King of the Franks, Pepin the Short. He took the Frankish throne after his father's death in 768, initially co-ruling with his brother Carloman I, who died in 771, leaving Charlemagne as undisputed ruler of the Franks.<br/><br/> Charlemagne considered himself a protector of the papacy, and invaded northern Italy to remove the Lombards from power, becoming King of Italy in 774. He also led incursions into Muslim Spain and campaigned against the Saxons of the east, Christianising them upon penalty of death, resulting in events such as the Massacre of Verden. Uniting large swathes of Western Europe during the early Middle Ages, Charlemagne reached the height of his power when he was crowned 'Emperor of the Romans' in 800, recognised as the true successor of the Roman emperors of old.<br/><br/> Now ruling as Holy Roman emperor, Charlemagne's conquests instigated the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of enlightenment and cultural activity for the Western Church. The Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Orthodox Church viewed him more controversially however, with Empress Irene actively supporting Charlemagne's rivals. Charlemagne eventually died in 814, ruling as emperor for just over thirteen years, and was laid to rest in his imperial capital of Aachen, in modern-day Germany. He is often called the 'Father of Europe' (<i>Pater Europae</i>).
Charles II (823-877), more commonly nicknamed Charles the Bald, was the son of Emperor Louis the Pious from his second wife. It was his mother's attempts to ensure Charles was included in Louis' succession plans that led to the multiple civil wars by Charles' half-brothers against his father.<br/><br/> When Charles' father died in 840, another civil war broke out between the emperor's sons, with Charles allying himself with his half-brother Louis the German against the new emperor, Lothair I. They defeated Lothair in 841, and cemented their alliance with the Oaths of Strasbourg and the Treaty of Verdun in 843, where he received the Kingdom of West Francia. His reign was peaceful for many years until 858, when Louis the German invaded West Francia, invited by disaffected nobles wanting to get rid of Charles. Louis the German was eventually repulsed, but other matters preoccupied Charles, such as unsuccessful attempts to seize the kingdoms of his nephews or the repeated rebellions and attacks by the Bretons and Vikings.<br/><br/> When Emperor Louis II died in 875, Charles became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Louis the German, furious he was not chosen, retaliated by invading and devastating Charles' lands, though he died a year later. While travelling back from Italy to defend his lands from his nephew Carloman, son of Louis the German, Charles fell ill and died in 877, with his son Louis the Stammerer (846-879) succeeding him as King of West Francia but not as emperor.
Charles II (823-877), more commonly nicknamed Charles the Bald, was the son of Emperor Louis the Pious from his second wife. It was his mother's attempts to ensure Charles was included in Louis' succession plans that led to the multiple civil wars by Charles' half-brothers against his father.<br/><br/> When Charles' father died in 840, another civil war broke out between the emperor's sons, with Charles allying himself with his half-brother Louis the German against the new emperor, Lothair I. They defeated Lothair in 841, and cemented their alliance with the Oaths of Strasbourg and the Treaty of Verdun in 843, where he received the Kingdom of West Francia. His reign was peaceful for many years until 858, when Louis the German invaded West Francia, invited by disaffected nobles wanting to get rid of Charles. Louis the German was eventually repulsed, but other matters preoccupied Charles, such as unsuccessful attempts to seize the kingdoms of his nephews or the repeated rebellions and attacks by the Bretons and Vikings.<br/><br/> When Emperor Louis II died in 875, Charles became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Louis the German, furious he was not chosen, retaliated by invading and devastating Charles' lands, though he died a year later. While travelling back from Italy to defend his lands from his nephew Carloman, son of Louis the German, Charles fell ill and died in 877, with his son Louis the Stammerer (846-879) succeeding him as King of West Francia but not as emperor.
Louis II (825-875), also known as Louis of Italy and Louis the Younger, was the eldest son of Emperor Lothair I, who he co-ruled with until 855, after which he inherited the imperial throne and ruled alone. Louis II was also King of Italy, and governed the kingdom before his ascension to emperor.<br/><br/> When his father died and his lands were divided amongst his sons, Louis was angry that he obtained no territory outside of Italy. Allying himself with his uncle, Louis the German, he fought against his own brother Lothair, King of Lotharingia, as well as his other uncle, King Charles the Bald, in 857. He reconciled with his brother in 858, and received the Kingdom of Provence in 863 after the death of his brother Charles. Louis had to deal with turbulence and chaos in Italy, as well as with Saracens ravaging its southern provinces, procuring the aid of Byzantine emperor Basil.<br/><br/> Louis was betrayed and imprisoned by one of his own nobles, Adelchis, Prince of Benevento, in 871, but was freed a month later due to fresh Saracen incursions. He unsuccessfully tried to punish Adelchis for his imprisonment, but had better luck against the Saracens. He eventually died in 875, naming his cousin Carloman as his successor.
Louis II (825-875), also known as Louis of Italy and Louis the Younger, was the eldest son of Emperor Lothair I, who he co-ruled with until 855, after which he inherited the imperial throne and ruled alone. Louis II was also King of Italy, and governed the kingdom before his ascension to emperor.<br/><br/> When his father died and his lands were divided amongst his sons, Louis was angry that he obtained no territory outside of Italy. Allying himself with his uncle, Louis the German, he fought against his own brother Lothair, King of Lotharingia, as well as his other uncle, King Charles the Bald, in 857. He reconciled with his brother in 858, and received the Kingdom of Provence in 863 after the death of his brother Charles. Louis had to deal with turbulence and chaos in Italy, as well as with Saracens ravaging its southern provinces, procuring the aid of Byzantine emperor Basil.<br/><br/> Louis was betrayed and imprisoned by one of his own nobles, Adelchis, Prince of Benevento, in 871, but was freed a month later due to fresh Saracen incursions. He unsuccessfully tried to punish Adelchis for his imprisonment, but had better luck against the Saracens. He eventually died in 875, naming his cousin Carloman as his successor.
Lothair I (795-855), also known as Lothar I, was the eldest son of Emperor Louis the Pious and grew up in the court of his grandfather, Emperor Charlemagne. When Louis became sole emperor in 814, he sent Lothair to govern Bavaria in 815. Lothair was crowned as co-emperor and declared as principal heir in 817, and would be overlord to his younger brothers, Pippin of Aquitaine and Louis the German, as well as his cousin Bernard of Italy.<br/><br/> When his father died in 840, Lothair ignored all previous plans for partitioning and claimed the whole of the Holy Roman Empire for himself, leading to another civil war which lasted around three years.
Louis I (778-840), also known as Louis the Pious, Louis the Fair and Louis the Debonaire, was the sole surviving adult son of Emperor Charlemagne and Hildegard. Louis ruled from Aquitaine, charged by his father with defending the empire's southwestern frontier from the Muslims of Spain. He conquered Barcelona in 801 and asserted Frankish dominance over Pamplona and the Basques south of the Pyrenees in 812. He was named as co-emperor and King of the Franks by his father in 813, before becoming sole ruler in 814.<br/><br/> When he became sole emperor, he appointed his adult sons Lothair, Pepin and Louis to roles in his government, seeking to establish a suitable division of the realm among them. Several embarrassments and tragedies marred his first decade of rule however, including his brutal tratment of his newphew Bernard of Italy, for which he atoned in a public act of self-debasement. In the 830s, the Holy Roman Empire was beset by various civil wars between Louis' sons, made worse when he tried to include his son Charles by his second wife into his succession plans.<br/><br/> Louis was deposed from 833-834, but soon regained his throne and largely restored order to the empire. He died in 840, and three years of civil war followed his death. Ultimately, Louis is generally compared unfavourably to his legendary father, though his reign faced distinctly different problems.
Louis I (778-840), also known as Lous the Pious, Loius the Fair and Louis the Debonaire, was the sole surviving adult son of Emperor Charlemagne and Hildegard. Louis ruled from Aquitaine, charged by his father with defending the empire's southwestern frontier from the Muslims of Spain. He conquered Barcelona in 801 and asserted Frankish dominance over Pamplona and the Basques south of the Pyrenees in 812. He was named as co-emperor and King of the Franks by his father in 813, before becoming sole ruler in 814.<br/><br/> When he became sole emperor, he appointed his adult sons Lothair, Pepin and Louis to roles in his government, seeking to establish a suitable division of the realm among them. Several embarrassments and tragedies marred his first decade of rule however, including his brutal tratment of his newphew Bernard of Italy, for which he atoned in a public act of self-debasement. In the 830s, the Holy Roman Empire was beset by various civil wars between Louis' sons, made worse when he tried to include his son Charles by his second wife into his succession plans.<br/><br/> Louis was deposed from 833-834, but soon regained his throne and largely restored order to the empire. He died in 840, and three years of civil war followed his death. Ultimately, Louis is generally compared unfavourably to his legendary father, though his reign faced distinctly different problems.
Charlemagne (742/747/748-814), also known as Charles the Great or Charles I was the eldest child of King of the Franks, Pepin the Short. He took the Frankish throne after his father's death in 768, initially co-ruling with his brother Carloman I, who died in 771, leaving Charlemagne as undisputed ruler of the Franks.<br/><br/> Charlemagne considered himself a protector of the papacy, and invaded northern Italy to remove the Lombards from power, becoming King of Italy in 774. He also led incursions into Muslim Spain and campaigned against the Saxons of the east, Christianising them upon penalty of death, resulting in events such as the Massacre of Verden. Uniting large swathes of Western Europe during the early Middle Ages, Charlemagne reached the height of his power when he was crowned 'Emperor of the Romans' in 800, recognised as the true successor of the Roman emperors of old.<br/><br/> Now ruling as Holy Roman emperor, Charlemagne's conquests instigated the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of enlightenment and cultural activity for the Western Church. The Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Orthodox Church viewed him more controversially however, with Empress Irene actively supporting Charlemagne's rivals. Charlemagne eventually died in 814, ruling as emperor for just over thirteen years, and was laid to rest in his imperial capital of Aachen, in modern-day Germany. He is often called the 'Father of Europe' (Pater Europae).
Charlemagne (742/747/748-814), also known as Charles the Great or Charles I was the eldest child of King of the Franks, Pepin the Short. He took the Frankish throne after his father's death in 768, initially co-ruling with his brother Carloman I, who died in 771, leaving Charlemagne as undisputed ruler of the Franks.<br/><br/> Charlemagne considered himself a protector of the papacy, and invaded northern Italy to remove the Lombards from power, becoming King of Italy in 774. He also led incursions into Muslim Spain and campaigned against the Saxons of the east, Christianising them upon penalty of death, resulting in events such as the Massacre of Verden. Uniting large swathes of Western Europe during the early Middle Ages, Charlemagne reached the height of his power when he was crowned 'Emperor of the Romans' in 800, recognised as the true successor of the Roman emperors of old.<br/><br/> Now ruling as Holy Roman emperor, Charlemagne's conquests instigated the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of enlightenment and cultural activity for the Western Church. The Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Orthodox Church viewed him more controversially however, with Empress Irene actively supporting Charlemagne's rivals. Charlemagne eventually died in 814, ruling as emperor for just over thirteen years, and was laid to rest in his imperial capital of Aachen, in modern-day Germany. He is often called the 'Father of Europe' (Pater Europae).
The 'Road to Canossa', sometimes called the 'Walk to Canossa' or 'Humiliation of Canossa', refers to Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV's trek to Canossa Castle, Italy, where Pope Gregory VII was staying as the guest of Margravine Matilda of Tuscany, at the height of the investiture controversy in January 1077 to seek absolution of his excommunication.<br/><br/> According to contemporary sources, he was forced to humiliate himself on his knees waiting for three days and three nights before the entrance gate of the castle, while a blizzard raged.
Starting with the California Gold Rush in the late 19th century, the United States—particularly the West Coast states—imported large numbers of Chinese migrant laborers. Early Chinese immigrants worked as gold miners, and later on large labor projects, such as the building of the First Transcontinental Railroad.<br/><br/> Chinese migrant workers encountered considerable prejudice in the United States, especially by the people who occupied the lower layers in white society, because Chinese 'coolies' were used as a scapegoat for depressed wage levels by politicians and labor leaders.<br/><br/> In the 1870s and 1880s various legal discriminatory measures were taken against the Chinese. These laws, in particular the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, were aimed at restricting further immigration from China. The laws were later repealed by the Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943.
Lothair I (795-855), also known as Lothar I, was the eldest son of Emperor Louis the Pious and grew up in the court of his grandfather, Emperor Charlemagne. When Louis became sole emperor in 814, he sent Lothair to govern Bavaria in 815. Lothair was crowned as co-emperor and declared as principal heir in 817, and would be overlord to his younger brothers, Pippin of Aquitaine and Louis the German, as well as his cousin Bernard of Italy.<br/><br/> When his father died in 840, Lothair ignored all previous plans for partitioning and claimed the whole of the Holy Roman Empire for himself, leading to another civil war which lasted around three years.
Lyndon Baines Johnson (August 27, 1908 – January 22, 1973), often referred to as LBJ, was the 36th President of the United States (1963–1969) after his service as the 37th Vice President of the United States (1961–1963). He is one of only four people who served in all four elected federal offices of the United States: Representative, Senator, Vice President and President.<br/><br/> Johnson, a Democrat, served as a United States Representative from Texas, from 1937–1949 and as United States Senator from 1949–1961, including six years as United States Senate Majority Leader, two as Senate Minority Leader and two as Senate Majority Whip. After campaigning unsuccessfully for the Democratic nomination in 1960, Johnson was asked by John F. Kennedy to be his running mate for the 1960 presidential election.<br/><br/> After becoming president in 1963, Johnson greatly escalated direct American involvement in the Vietnam War. As the war dragged on, Johnson's popularity as President steadily declined. After the 1966 mid-term Congressional elections, his re-election bid in the 1968 United States presidential election collapsed as a result of turmoil within the Democratic Party related to opposition to the Vietnam War. He withdrew from the race amid growing opposition to his policy on the Vietnam War and a worse-than-expected showing in the New Hampshire primary.<br/><br/> Despite the failures of his foreign policy, Johnson is ranked favorably by some historians because of his domestic policies.
Charlemagne (2 April 742 – 28 January 814 CE), also known as Charles the Great (Latin: Carolus or Karolus Magnus, French: Charles Le Grand or Charlemagne, German: Karl der Grosse, Italian: Carlo Magno or Carlomagno) or Charles I, was King of the Franks who united most of Western Europe during the Middle Ages and laid the foundations for modern France and Germany. He took the Frankish throne from 768 and became King of Italy from 774. From 800 he became the first Holy Roman Emperor - the first recognized Roman emperor in Western Europe since the collapse of the Western Roman Empire three centuries earlier. The expanded Frankish state he founded is called the Carolingian Empire.<br/><br/> The oldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon, Charlemagne became king in 768 following the death of his father. He was initially co-ruler with his brother Carloman I. Carloman's sudden death in 771 under unexplained circumstances left Charlemagne as the undisputed ruler of the Frankish Kingdom. Charlemagne continued his father's policy towards the papacy and became its protector, removing the Lombards from power in northern Italy, and leading an incursion into Muslim Spain. He also campaigned against the Saxons to his east, Christianizing them upon penalty of death, at times leading to events such as the Massacre of Verden. Charlemagne reached the height of his power in 800 when he was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day at Old St. Peter's Basilica.<br/><br/> Called the 'Father of Europe' (pater Europae), Charlemagne united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Roman Empire. His rule spurred the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of cultural and intellectual activity within the Catholic Church. Both the French and German monarchies considered their kingdoms to be descendants of Charlemagne's empire.<br/><br/> Charlemagne died in 814, having ruled as emperor for just over thirteen years. He was laid to rest in his imperial capital of Aachen in what is today Germany. His son Louis the Pious succeeded him.
William Averell Harriman (November 15, 1891 – July 26, 1986) was an American Democratic politician, businessman, and diplomat. He was the son of railroad baron E. H. Harriman. He served as Secretary of Commerce under President Harry S. Truman and later as the 48th Governor of New York. He was a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1952, and again in 1956 when he was endorsed by President Truman but lost to Adlai Stevenson both times.<br/><br/> Harriman served President Franklin D. Roosevelt as special envoy to Europe and served as the U.S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union and U.S. Ambassador to Britain. He served in numerous U.S. diplomatic assignments in the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations. He was a core member of the group of foreign policy elders known as 'The Wise Men'.
Charlemagne (2 April 742 – 28 January 814 CE), also known as Charles the Great (Latin: Carolus or Karolus Magnus, French: Charles Le Grand or Charlemagne, German: Karl der Grosse, Italian: Carlo Magno or Carlomagno) or Charles I, was King of the Franks who united most of Western Europe during the Middle Ages and laid the foundations for modern France and Germany. He took the Frankish throne from 768 and became King of Italy from 774. From 800 he became the first Holy Roman Emperor - the first recognized Roman emperor in Western Europe since the collapse of the Western Roman Empire three centuries earlier. The expanded Frankish state he founded is called the Carolingian Empire.<br/><br/> The oldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon, Charlemagne became king in 768 following the death of his father. He was initially co-ruler with his brother Carloman I. Carloman's sudden death in 771 under unexplained circumstances left Charlemagne as the undisputed ruler of the Frankish Kingdom. Charlemagne continued his father's policy towards the papacy and became its protector, removing the Lombards from power in northern Italy, and leading an incursion into Muslim Spain. He also campaigned against the Saxons to his east, Christianizing them upon penalty of death, at times leading to events such as the Massacre of Verden. Charlemagne reached the height of his power in 800 when he was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day at Old St. Peter's Basilica.<br/><br/> Called the 'Father of Europe' (pater Europae), Charlemagne united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Roman Empire. His rule spurred the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of cultural and intellectual activity within the Catholic Church. Both the French and German monarchies considered their kingdoms to be descendants of Charlemagne's empire.<br/><br/> Charlemagne died in 814, having ruled as emperor for just over thirteen years. He was laid to rest in his imperial capital of Aachen in what is today Germany. His son Louis the Pious succeeded him.
Charlemagne (2 April 742 – 28 January 814 CE), also known as Charles the Great (Latin: Carolus or Karolus Magnus, French: Charles Le Grand or Charlemagne, German: Karl der Grosse, Italian: Carlo Magno or Carlomagno) or Charles I, was King of the Franks who united most of Western Europe during the Middle Ages and laid the foundations for modern France and Germany. He took the Frankish throne from 768 and became King of Italy from 774. From 800 he became the first Holy Roman Emperor - the first recognized Roman emperor in Western Europe since the collapse of the Western Roman Empire three centuries earlier. The expanded Frankish state he founded is called the Carolingian Empire.<br/><br/> Maugris or Maugis was one of the heroes of the <i>chansons de geste</i> and romances of chivalry and the 'Matter of France' that tell of the legendary court of King Charlemagne. Maugis was cousin to Renaud de Montauban and his brothers, son of Beuves of Aygremont and brother to Vivien de Monbranc. He was brought up by Oriande the fairy, and became a great enchanter. He won the magical horse Bayard and the sword Froberge which he later gave to Renaud.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt served as the 32nd President of the United States, from 1933 to 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and dominated his party after 1932 as a central figure in world events during the mid-20th century, leading the United States during a time of worldwide economic depression and total war.<br/><br/> His program for relief, recovery and reform, known as the New Deal, involved a great expansion of the role of the federal government in the economy. As a dominant leader of the Democratic Party, he built the New Deal Coalition that brought together and united labor unions, big city machines, ethnic whites, African Americans, and rural white Southerners in support of the party.<br/><br/> The Coalition significantly realigned American politics after 1932, creating the Fifth Party System and defining American liberalism throughout the middle third of the 20th century.
Charlemagne (2 April 742 – 28 January 814 CE), also known as Charles the Great (Latin: Carolus or Karolus Magnus, French: Charles Le Grand or Charlemagne, German: Karl der Grosse, Italian: Carlo Magno or Carlomagno) or Charles I, was King of the Franks who united most of Western Europe during the Middle Ages and laid the foundations for modern France and Germany. He took the Frankish throne from 768 and became King of Italy from 774. From 800 he became the first Holy Roman Emperor - the first recognized Roman emperor in Western Europe since the collapse of the Western Roman Empire three centuries earlier. The expanded Frankish state he founded is called the Carolingian Empire.<br/><br/> The oldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon, Charlemagne became king in 768 following the death of his father. He was initially co-ruler with his brother Carloman I. Carloman's sudden death in 771 under unexplained circumstances left Charlemagne as the undisputed ruler of the Frankish Kingdom. Charlemagne continued his father's policy towards the papacy and became its protector, removing the Lombards from power in northern Italy, and leading an incursion into Muslim Spain. He also campaigned against the Saxons to his east, Christianizing them upon penalty of death, at times leading to events such as the Massacre of Verden. Charlemagne reached the height of his power in 800 when he was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day at Old St. Peter's Basilica.<br/><br/> Called the 'Father of Europe' (pater Europae), Charlemagne united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Roman Empire. His rule spurred the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of cultural and intellectual activity within the Catholic Church. Both the French and German monarchies considered their kingdoms to be descendants of Charlemagne's empire.<br/><br/> Charlemagne died in 814, having ruled as emperor for just over thirteen years. He was laid to rest in his imperial capital of Aachen in what is today Germany. His son Louis the Pious succeeded him.
Henry IV (1050-1106), son of Emperor Henry III, was crowned King of Germany in 1056 after his father's death, though his young age meant his mother ruled as regent in his stead. He was kidnapped in the Coup of Kaiserswerth in 1062, a conspiracy led by the Archbishop of Cologne Anno II, who ruled the Holy Roman Empire while supervising over Henry's education and training.<br/><br/> When Anno was absent from Germany for a period, Henry managed to wrest back control of the government, and spent much of his reign consolidating his imperial power. The Investiture Controversy occurred during his rule, one of the most significant conflicts between Church and state in mediaeval Europe. Several civil wars were also waged over his throne, in both Germany and Italy, and while launching a third punitive expdition into Italy in 1093, Henry's son Conrad turned against him, crowned as King of Italy by one of Henry's fiercest foes, Matilda of Tuscany.<br/><br/> Henry finally formally deposed Conrad in 1098 and named his younger son Henry V as his successor. However, Henry V later also turned on his father in 1104, encouraged by the pope who had once again excommunicated his father. He was imprisoned and forced to resign his crown, though he escaped in 1106 and began to amass considerable support to his name. He defeated his son, but died soon afterwards from an illness. Henry was one of the most powerful and important figures of the 11th century.
Charlemagne (2 April 742 – 28 January 814 CE), also known as Charles the Great (Latin: Carolus or Karolus Magnus, French: Charles Le Grand or Charlemagne, German: Karl der Grosse, Italian: Carlo Magno or Carlomagno) or Charles I, was King of the Franks who united most of Western Europe during the Middle Ages and laid the foundations for modern France and Germany. He took the Frankish throne from 768 and became King of Italy from 774. From 800 he became the first Holy Roman Emperor - the first recognized Roman emperor in Western Europe since the collapse of the Western Roman Empire three centuries earlier. The expanded Frankish state he founded is called the Carolingian Empire.<br/><br/> The oldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon, Charlemagne became king in 768 following the death of his father. He was initially co-ruler with his brother Carloman I. Carloman's sudden death in 771 under unexplained circumstances left Charlemagne as the undisputed ruler of the Frankish Kingdom. Charlemagne continued his father's policy towards the papacy and became its protector, removing the Lombards from power in northern Italy, and leading an incursion into Muslim Spain. He also campaigned against the Saxons to his east, Christianizing them upon penalty of death, at times leading to events such as the Massacre of Verden. Charlemagne reached the height of his power in 800 when he was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day at Old St. Peter's Basilica.<br/><br/> Called the 'Father of Europe' (pater Europae), Charlemagne united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Roman Empire. His rule spurred the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of cultural and intellectual activity within the Catholic Church. Both the French and German monarchies considered their kingdoms to be descendants of Charlemagne's empire.<br/><br/> Charlemagne died in 814, having ruled as emperor for just over thirteen years. He was laid to rest in his imperial capital of Aachen in what is today Germany. His son Louis the Pious succeeded him.
Manzanar is most widely known as the site of one of ten camps where over 110,000 Japanese Americans were incarcerated during World War II. Located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada in California's Owens Valley between the towns of Lone Pine to the south and Independence to the north, it is approximately 230 miles (370 km) northeast of Los Angeles.<br/><br/> Long before the first incarcerees arrived in March 1942, Manzanar was home to Native Americans, who mostly lived in villages near several creeks in the area. Ranchers and miners formally established the town of Manzanar in 1910, but abandoned the town by 1929 after the City of Los Angeles purchased the water rights to virtually the entire area.<br/><br/> Since the last incarcerees left in 1945, former incarcerees and others have worked to protect Manzanar and to establish it as a National Historic Site to ensure that the history of the site, along with the stories of those who were unjustly incarcerated there, are remembered by current and future generations.
The Second Sino-Japanese War (July 7, 1937 – September 2, 1945), called so after the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95, was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan from 1937 to 1941.<br/><br/> China fought Japan with some economic help from Germany (until 1941), the Soviet Union (1937–1940) and the United States. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the war merged into the greater conflict of World War II as a major front of what is broadly known as the Pacific War. The Second Sino-Japanese War was the largest Asian war in the 20th century. It also made up more than 50% of the casualties in the Pacific War if the 1937–1941 period is taken into account.
Charlemagne (2 April 742 – 28 January 814 CE), also known as Charles the Great (Latin: Carolus or Karolus Magnus, French: Charles Le Grand or Charlemagne, German: Karl der Grosse, Italian: Carlo Magno or Carlomagno) or Charles I, was King of the Franks who united most of Western Europe during the Middle Ages and laid the foundations for modern France and Germany. He took the Frankish throne from 768 and became King of Italy from 774. From 800 he became the first Holy Roman Emperor - the first recognized Roman emperor in Western Europe since the collapse of the Western Roman Empire three centuries earlier. The expanded Frankish state he founded is called the Carolingian Empire.<br/><br/> The oldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon, Charlemagne became king in 768 following the death of his father. He was initially co-ruler with his brother Carloman I. Carloman's sudden death in 771 under unexplained circumstances left Charlemagne as the undisputed ruler of the Frankish Kingdom. Charlemagne continued his father's policy towards the papacy and became its protector, removing the Lombards from power in northern Italy, and leading an incursion into Muslim Spain. He also campaigned against the Saxons to his east, Christianizing them upon penalty of death, at times leading to events such as the Massacre of Verden. Charlemagne reached the height of his power in 800 when he was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day at Old St. Peter's Basilica.<br/><br/> Called the 'Father of Europe' (pater Europae), Charlemagne united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Roman Empire. His rule spurred the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of cultural and intellectual activity within the Catholic Church. Both the French and German monarchies considered their kingdoms to be descendants of Charlemagne's empire.<br/><br/> Charlemagne died in 814, having ruled as emperor for just over thirteen years. He was laid to rest in his imperial capital of Aachen in what is today Germany. His son Louis the Pious succeeded him.
Field Marshal William Joseph 'Bill' Slim, 1st Viscount Slim KG GCB GCMG GCVO GBE DSO MC KS (6 August 1891 – 14 December 1970) was a British military commander and the 13th Governor-General of Australia.<br/><br/> He fought in both the First and Second world wars and was wounded in action three times. During World War II he led the 14th Army, the so-called 'forgotten army' in the Burma campaign. From 1953 to 1959 he was Governor-General of Australia, regarded by many Australians as an authentic war hero who had fought with the Anzacs at Gallipoli.
Field Marshal William Joseph 'Bill' Slim, 1st Viscount Slim KG GCB GCMG GCVO GBE DSO MC KS (6 August 1891 – 14 December 1970) was a British military commander and the 13th Governor-General of Australia.<br/><br/> He fought in both the First and Second world wars and was wounded in action three times. During World War II he led the 14th Army, the so-called 'forgotten army' in the Burma campaign. From 1953 to 1959 he was Governor-General of Australia, regarded by many Australians as an authentic war hero who had fought with the Anzacs at Gallipoli.
Field Marshal William Joseph 'Bill' Slim, 1st Viscount Slim KG GCB GCMG GCVO GBE DSO MC KS (6 August 1891 – 14 December 1970) was a British military commander and the 13th Governor-General of Australia.<br/><br/> He fought in both the First and Second world wars and was wounded in action three times. During World War II he led the 14th Army, the so-called 'forgotten army' in the Burma campaign. From 1953 to 1959 he was Governor-General of Australia, regarded by many Australians as an authentic war hero who had fought with the Anzacs at Gallipoli.
The Second Indochina War, known in America as the Vietnam War, was a Cold War era military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War and was fought between North Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government of South Vietnam, supported by the U.S. and other anti-communist nations. The U.S. government viewed involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and part of their wider strategy of containment.<br/><br/> The North Vietnamese government viewed the war as a colonial war, fought initially against France, backed by the U.S., and later against South Vietnam, which it regarded as a U.S. puppet state. U.S. military advisors arrived beginning in 1950. U.S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with U.S. troop levels tripling in 1961 and tripling again in 1962. U.S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965. Operations spanned borders, with Laos and Cambodia heavily bombed. Involvement peaked in 1968 at the time of the Tet Offensive.<br/><br/> U.S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973. The capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese army in April 1975 marked the end of the US-Vietnam War.
Field Marshal William Joseph 'Bill' Slim, 1st Viscount Slim KG GCB GCMG GCVO GBE DSO MC KS (6 August 1891 – 14 December 1970) was a British military commander and the 13th Governor-General of Australia.<br/><br/> He fought in both the First and Second world wars and was wounded in action three times. During World War II he led the 14th Army, the so-called 'forgotten army' in the Burma campaign. From 1953 to 1959 he was Governor-General of Australia, regarded by many Australians as an authentic war hero who had fought with the Anzacs at Gallipoli.
Frank Dow Merrill (December 4, 1903 in New Hampshire – December 11, 1955 in Fernandina Beach, Florida) is best remembered for his command of Merrill's Marauders, officially the 5307th Composite Unit (provisional), in the Burma Campaign of World War II. Merrill's Marauders came under General Joseph Stilwell's Northern Combat Area Command. It was a special forces unit modelled on the Chindits' long range penetration groups trained to operate from bases deep behind Japanese lines.
Manuscript painting of Henry V (1081/1086-1125), 19th Holy Roman emperor, being given an orb by Ruthard, Archbishop of Mainz, c. 1128.<br/><br/> Henry V (1081/1086-1125) was the son of Emperor Henry IV, and in 1099 was crowned as King of Germany and his true successor in place of his older brother Conrad, who had rebelled against their father.
The second Imperial Hotel, built between 1915-1923, was the best-known of Frank Lloyd Wright's buildings in Japan. It was designed roughly in the shape of its own logo, with the guest room wings forming the letter "H". It survived the great Kanto Earthquake of 1923, as well as the Second World War, and was demolished in 1968.
Manzanar is most widely known as the site of one of ten camps where over 110,000 Japanese Americans were incarcerated during World War II. Located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada in California's Owens Valley between the towns of Lone Pine to the south and Independence to the north, it is approximately 230 miles (370 km) northeast of Los Angeles.<br/><br/> Long before the first incarcerees arrived in March 1942, Manzanar was home to Native Americans, who mostly lived in villages near several creeks in the area. Ranchers and miners formally established the town of Manzanar in 1910, but abandoned the town by 1929 after the City of Los Angeles purchased the water rights to virtually the entire area.<br/><br/> Since the last incarcerees left in 1945, former incarcerees and others have worked to protect Manzanar and to establish it as a National Historic Site to ensure that the history of the site, along with the stories of those who were unjustly incarcerated there, are remembered by current and future generations.
The Burma Campaign in the South-East Asian Theatre of World War II was fought primarily between British Commonwealth, Chinese and United States forces against the forces of the Empire of Japan, who were assisted to some degree by Thailand, the Burmese Independence Army and the Indian National Army. The British Commonwealth land forces were drawn primarily from the United Kingdom, British India and Africa.<br/><br/> Partly because monsoon rains made effective campaigning possible only for about half of the year, the Burma campaign was almost the longest campaign of the war. During the campaigning season of 1942, the Japanese had conquered Burma, driving British, Indian and Chinese forces from most of the country and forcing the British administration to flee into India. After scoring some defensive successes during 1943, they then attempted to forestall Allied offensives in 1944 by launching an invasion of India (Operation U-Go). This failed with disastrous losses.<br/><br/> During the next campaigning season beginning in December 1944, the Allies launched offensives into Burma, capturing Rangoon, the capital and principal port, from the weakened Japanese just before the monsoon struck, to ensure their hold on the country.
The fall of Mandalay on 20th March 1945 was the culmination of an advance of 640 kilometres (400 miles) against ever increasing opposition which carried the 19th Indian Division of the British Indian Army from the banks of the Chindwin River to the walls of Fort Dufferin in Mandalay.<br/><br/> Both the 1st and 4th Battalions of the 6th Gurkha Rifles served in the 19th Indian Division during this period. The 1st Battalion was in the 64th Indian Infantry Brigade, for the most part leading the Division’s advance and covering the north and west flanks. The 4th Battalion was in the 62nd Indian Infantry Brigade. It was this lightening advance over difficult and sometimes treacherous terrain chasing a tenacious and often fanatical enemy that was a principal factor in the defeat of the Japanese.
Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856 – February 3, 1924), better known as Woodrow Wilson, was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921.<br/><br/> In office, Wilson reintroduced the spoken State of the Union, which had been out of use since 1801. Leading the Congress, now in Democratic hands, he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933.<br/><br/> A devoted Presbyterian, Wilson infused a profound sense of moralism into his internationalism, now referred to as 'Wilsonian'—a contentious position in American foreign policy which obligates the United States to promote global democracy. For his sponsorship of the League of Nations, Wilson was awarded the 1919 Nobel Peace Prize.
This Chinese child soldier, age 10, with heavy pack, was a member of an army division boarding a plane returning them to China, following the capture of Myitkyina airfield, Burma, under the allied command of US Major General Frank Merrill, May 1944.<br/><br/> Chinese and allied troops had earlier crossed through the treacherous jungle of the Kumon Bum Mountains before attacking Japanese troops to the south. Exhaustion and disease led to the early evacuation of many Chinese and allied troops before the coming assault on Myitkyina town.