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Galerius (260-311) was born in Serdica and was initially a herdsman like his father, before going on to join the Roman army, where he served with distinction under Emperors Aurelian and Probus. When the Tetrarchy was established in 293, he was named as one of the junior co-emperors alongside Constantius, marrying Emperor Diocletian's daughter Valeria.<br/><br/> Galerius fought alongside his father-in-law against the resurgent Sassanid Empire, eventually leading to his sacking of the capital Ctesiphon and his capture of the wife and children of the Sassanid king Narseh, with which he was able to negotiate a long-lasting and favourable peace treaty. When Diocletian and Maximian abdicated in 305, Galerius and Constantius became joint emperors, with Galerius conspiring to secure a stronger power base than his co-ruler. His hopes and plans came to naught when Constantius died a year later and his son, Constantine I, ascended to become emperor of the western half of the empire.<br/><br/> Galerius had been a staunch opponent of Christianity, supposedly prodding Diocletian into enacting the Diocletianic Persecution, the largest and most violent official persecution of Christians in the empire's history, by burning down the Imperial Palace and blaming it on Christian saboteurs. His attitude changed in 311 when he enacted the Edict of Toleration, asking for Christians to pray for him as he suffered through a painful and fatal illness. He died six days later.
Volusianus (-253), also known as Volusian, was the son of Emperor Trebonianus Gallus, and later made co-emperor alongside his father in 251. Their rule only lasted two years though, as they were murdered by mutinous troops in 253, while marching to face the ususper Aemilian.
Born Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE), Julius Caesar was one the most infamous figures in history. A Roman politican, general and author, he played a critical role in the fall of the Roman Republic and paved the way for the rise of the Roman Empire. His political alliance alongside Crassus and Pompey, first formed in 60 BCE, would dominate Roman politics for many years. His victories in the Gallic Wars extended the Republic's territories all the way to the English Channel and the Rhine, and he became the first Roman general to build a bridge across the Rhine, as well as starting the invasion of Britain.<br/><br/> With these achievements under his belt, he amassed unmatched military power to himself, soon eclipsing his political ally Pompey. The Senate, also fearful of his growing power, demanded he step down from military command and return to Rome, which he refused, and marked his defiance by crossing the Rubicon with a legion in 49 BCE, illegally entering Roman Italy with an army and causing a civil war that he quickly crushed.<br/><br/> Taking control of the government, Caesar began implementing various social and political changes, declaring himself 'dictator in perpetuity'. The Senate still held much contempt for him however, and during the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BCE, Caesar was assassinated by a conspiracy of rebellious senators led by former friend and ally, Marcus Junius Brutus. A new string of civil wars ensued, ultimately concluding with Julius Caesar's adopted heir, Octavian, emerging victorious and becoming emperor.
Licinius (263-325) was born to a peasant family and was a close childhood friend of future emperor Galerius, becoming a close confidante to Galerius and entrusted with the eastern provinces when Galerius went to deal with the usurper Maxentius. Galerius elevated Licinius to co-emperor, Augustus in the West, in 308, though he personally had control over the eastern provinces.<br/><br/> After emperors Maxentius and Maximinus II formed an alliance, Licinius was forced to enter into a formal agreement with Constantine I, marrying his half-sister Flavia Julia Constantia. He fought against Maximinus' forces and finally killed him in 313, while Constantine had defeated Maxentius in 312.<br/><br/> The two divided the Roman Empire between them, but civil war soon erupted a year later in 314. The two emperors would constantly war against each other, then make peace before restarting conflict again for the next few years. Licinius was finally defeated for good in 324, with only the pleas of his wife, Constantine's sister, saving him. Licinius was then hanged a year later in 325, accused by Constantine of conspiring to stir revolt among the barbarians.
Maximinus II (270-313), also known as Maximinus Daia or Maximinus Daza, was of Dacian peasant stock and nephew of Emperor Galerius. He joined the army and rose to high distinction, eventually being adopted by his uncle and raised to the rank of Caesar, giving him governorship of Syria and Egypt. When his uncle died in 311, Maximinus divided the Eastern Empire between himself and co-Emperor Licinius.<br/><br/> However, when Licinius made common cause with Constantine I, Maximinus was forced to establish a secret alliance with the usurper Emperor Maxentius, who controlled Italy. He made open war with Licinius in 313, but faced a massive defeat at the Battle of Tzirallum in the same year. He fled to Nicomedia and Tarsus, and eventually died, with multiple causes such as despair, poison and divine justice being ascribed to his death.<br/><br/> Maximinus II was known for his major persecution of Christians during his reign, one of the last great persecutions of Christianity, making demands to urban authorities to expel Christians and promoting Pagan beliefs. He only changed his mind and issued an edict of tolerance shortly before his death, just as his uncle had.
Diocletian (244-312) was born as Diocles to a family of low status from Dalmatia. He rose through the ranks of the military to become a cavalry commander under Emperor Carus, and after the deaths of Carus and his son Numerian in 284, Diocletian was proclaimed emperor, defeating Carus' other surviving son Carinus to sanctify his claim.<br/><br/> Diocletian's rule would stabilise the Roman Empire after the Crisis of the Third Century, and he made fellow officer Maximian co-emperor in 286 to help rule. He further appointed Galerius and Constantius as junior co-emperors in 293, establishing a tetrarchy (rule of four) which saw the quarter-division of the empire. He defeated many threats to Rome and secured the empire's borders. He sacked Ctesiphon, capital of the Sassanid Empire, before negotiating a lasting peace arrangement.<br/><br/> Diocletian's rule saw the establishment of the largest and most bureaucratic government in the empire's history, as well as overseeing the Docletianic Persecution (303-311), the largest and bloodiest official persecution of Christianity in the empire's history. He eventually abdicated in 305 after falling sick, becoming the first emperor to voluntarily abdicate his throne, living the rest of his years in his private palace on the Dalmatian coast.
Trebonianus Gallus (206-253) was a respected politician and general in the Roman Empire, and rose to power after the deaths of co-Emperors Trajan Decius and his son Herennius Etruscus during the Battle of Abrittus in 251. Some rumours claim that Gallus had had a hand in the deaths of Decius and his son, having conspired with the Goth invaders.<br/><br/> His soldiers proclaimed Gallus emperor, but Decius' other son Hostilian had been acknowledged by the people of Rome as rightful heir. Not wishing to start another civil war, Gallus acquiesced to the will of the Roman people and adopted Hostilian as his son, becoming co-emperors together. Hostilian's death to plague barely months into his rule in 251 allowed Gallus to rule alongside his son Volusianus as new co-emperors.<br/><br/> Like the reign of those before him, Gallus had to contend with revolts and foreign invasions. Aemilianus, governor of the provinces of Moesia Superior and Pannonia, took the initiative and defeated invaders threatening the eastern Roman frontier in 253. He was then proclaimed as emperor by his troops, and marched to Rome to fight for his claim, defeating Gallus and Volusianus in battle, who were subsequently killed by their own troops in August 253.
Hostilian (230-251) was the second son of Emperor Trajan Decius and younger brother of Emperor Herennius Etruscus. He became an imperial prince after his father ascended to the throne, but was constantly in the shadow of his brother, who was heir.<br/><br/> After Decius and Herennius were killed during the Battle of Abrittus on the Danubian frontier in 251, the armies in the Danube declared respected General Trebonianus Gallus as emperor, while Rome acknowledged Hostilian as the heir. To avoid another civil war, Trebonianus adopted Hostilian and chose to respect Rome's will, the two becoming co-emperors.<br/><br/> Only a few months into their co-rule however, the Plague of Cyprian broke out across the Empire, and Hostilian died in the rapidly spreading epidemic, aged 21. Hostilian became the first emperor in 40 years to die of natural causes.
Born Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, Caligula was the nephew and adopted son of Emperor Tiberius, making him part of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He earned the nickname 'Caligula' (little solder's boot) while accompanying his father, Germanicus, during his campaigns in Germania.<br/><br/> His mother, Agrippina the Elder, became entangled in a deadly feud with Emperor Tiberius that resulted in the destruction of her family and leaving Caligula the sole male survivor. After Tiberius' death in 37 CE, Caligula succeeded his grand uncle as emperor. Surviving sources of his reign are few and far between, but he is often described as initially being a noble and moderate ruler before descending into tyranny, cruelty, sadism, extravagance and sexual perversity.<br/><br/> Caligula was eventually assassinated in 41 CE by a conspiracy of courtiers, senators and officers within his own Praetorian Guard, who murdered him and his family. Attempts by some of the conspirators to re-establish the Roman Republic were thwarted when the Praetorian Guard immediately decalared Caligula's uncle, Claudius, the new emperor.
Born Gaius Octavius, his maternal great-uncle Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BCE, and Octavius, now calling himself Octavian, was named in Caesar's will as his adopted son and heir. He, Mark Antony, and Marcus Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate to defeat the assassins of Caesar. Following their victory at Philippi, the Triumvirate divided the Roman Republic among themselves and ruled as military dictators. Competing ambitions eventually tore the Triumvirate apart and engulfed the Republic into another civil war. Lepidus was driven into exile and stripped of his position, while Antony committed suicide following his defeat at the Battle of Actium by Octavian in 31 BCE.<br/><br/> Following the fall of the Second Triumvirate, Octavian, renamed Augustus, restored the facade of the free Republic, with governmental power vested in the Roman Senate. In reality, however, he still possessed autocratic power over the Republic as a military dictator. Lawfully, Augustus had powers granted to him for life by the Senate, including supreme military command. After several years, Augustus reformed the republican state into one under his sole rule. Rejecting monarchical titles, he instead declared himself Princeps Civitatis ('First Citizen of the State'). The resulting constitutional framework was known as the Principate, the first phase of the Roman Empire.<br/><br/> The reign of Augustus initiated an era of relative peace known as the Pax Romana (The Roman Peace). The Roman world was largely free from large-scale conflict for more than two centuries, though there were continuous wars of imperial expansion on the Empire's frontiers. Augustus dramatically enlarged the Empire through annexation of Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Noricum, and Raetia, as well as expanding possessions in Africa, Germania and Hispania.
Born Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE), Julius Caesar was one the most infamous figures in history. A Roman politican, general and author, he played a critical role in the fall of the Roman Republic and paved the way for the rise of the Roman Empire. His political alliance alongside Crassus and Pompey, first formed in 60 BCE, would dominate Roman politics for many years. His victories in the Gallic Wars extended the Republic's territories all the way to the English Channel and the Rhine, and he became the first Roman general to build a bridge across the Rhine, as well as starting the invasion of Britain.<br/><br/> With these achievements under his belt, he amassed unmatched military power to himself, soon eclipsing his political ally Pompey. The Senate, also fearful of his growing power, demanded he step down from military command and return to Rome, which he refused, and marked his defiance by crossing the Rubicon with a legion in 49 BCE, illegally entering Roman Italy with an army and causing a civil war that he quickly crushed.<br/><br/> Taking control of the government, Caesar began implementing various social and political changes, declaring himself 'dictator in perpetuity'. The Senate still held much contempt for him however, and during the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BCE, Caesar was assassinated by a conspiracy of rebellious senators led by former friend and ally, Marcus Junius Brutus. A new string of civil wars ensued, ultimately concluding with Julius Caesar's adopted heir, Octavian, emerging victorious and becoming emperor.
Pescennius Niger (135/140-194) was born into an old Italian equestrian family, and was the first member to become a Roman senator. He was appointed by Commodus to be imperial legate of Syria in 191, where he was serving when news came of the murder of Pertinax in 193 and the auctioning of the imperial throne to Didius Julianus.<br/><br/> Niger was a well regarded public figure, and the citizens of Rome called out for him to return to Rome and claim the title from Julianus. Consequently, the eastern legions proclaimed Niger as emperor in 193, the second emperor to claim the imperial title after Septimius Severus. The resulting chaos and civil war was known as the Year of the Five Emperors, with claimants all across the Roman Empire vying for the throne.<br/><br/> Niger and Severus fought in the east to see who would become undisputed emperor, though Niger was militarily outmatched and outnumbered. Severus offered Niger the chance to surrender and go into exile, but he refused, and was eventually captured in 194. He was beheaded, with his severed head travelling to Byzantium first in an attempt to cow the city into surrendering, before eventually arriving in Rome where it was displayed for all to see.
Trajan Decius (201-251 CE) was a distinguished senator and governor in the Roman Empire. When revolts and uprisings began occurring throughout the Empire in the last years of Philip the Arab's reign, Decius was sent to quell a revolt in the Balkan provinces of Moesia and Pannonia. After defeating the revolt, Decius was proclaimed Emperor by his troops, and he fought against and killed Philip in 249 CE, entering Rome and being recognised as Emperor by the Roman Senate.<br/><br/> As Emperor, Decius focused on defeating external threats to the Empire, as well as restoring public piety and strengthening the State religion, which involved the persecution of Christians as well as an Imperial edict declaring all citizens make a sacrifice for the Emperor and Empire every year on a certain day.<br/><br/> A renewed incursion by the Goths forced Decius to march and confront them in battle, alongside his son and co-emperor, Herennius Etruscus. During the decisive Battle of Abritus, Etruscus was killed early on by an arrow, and Decius was himself later killed on the field of battle, when his entire army was entangled and annihilated in a swamp. Decius and his son were the first two Roman Emperors to be officially recorded dying in battle against a foreign enemy, with Gordian III's manner of death still debated.
Galerius (260-311) was born in Serdica and was initially a herdsman like his father, before going on to join the Roman army, where he served with distinction under Emperors Aurelian and Probus. When the Tetrarchy was established in 293, he was named as one of the junior co-emperors alongside Constantius, marrying Emperor Diocletian's daughter Valeria.<br/><br/> Galerius fought alongside his father-in-law against the resurgent Sassanid Empire, eventually leading to his sacking of the capital Ctesiphon and his capture of the wife and children of the Sassanid king Narseh, with which he was able to negotiate a long-lasting and favourable peace treaty. When Diocletian and Maximian abdicated in 305, Galerius and Constantius became joint emperors, with Galerius conspiring to secure a stronger power base than his co-ruler. His hopes and plans came to naught when Constantius died a year later and his son, Constantine I, ascended to become emperor of the western half of the empire.<br/><br/> Galerius had been a staunch opponent of Christianity, supposedly prodding Diocletian into enacting the Diocletianic Persecution, the largest and most violent official persecution of Christians in the empire's history, by burning down the Imperial Palace and blaming it on Christian saboteurs. His attitude changed in 311 when he enacted the Edict of Toleration, asking for Christians to pray for him as he suffered through a painful and fatal illness. He died six days later.
Maximinus II (270-313), also known as Maximinus Daia or Maximinus Daza, was of Dacian peasant stock and nephew of Emperor Galerius. He joined the army and rose to high distinction, eventually being adopted by his uncle and raised to the rank of Caesar, giving him governorship of Syria and Egypt. When his uncle died in 311, Maximinus divided the Eastern Empire between himself and co-Emperor Licinius.<br/><br/> However, when Licinius made common cause with Constantine I, Maximinus was forced to establish a secret alliance with the usurper Emperor Maxentius, who controlled Italy. He made open war with Licinius in 313, but faced a massive defeat at the Battle of Tzirallum in the same year. He fled to Nicomedia and Tarsus, and eventually died, with multiple causes such as despair, poison and divine justice being ascribed to his death.<br/><br/> Maximinus II was known for his major persecution of Christians during his reign, one of the last great persecutions of Christianity, making demands to urban authorities to expel Christians and promoting Pagan beliefs. He only changed his mind and issued an edict of tolerance shortly before his death, just as his uncle had.
Trebonianus Gallus (206-253) was a respected politician and general in the Roman Empire, and rose to power after the deaths of co-Emperors Trajan Decius and his son Herennius Etruscus during the Battle of Abrittus in 251. Some rumours claim that Gallus had had a hand in the deaths of Decius and his son, having conspired with the Goth invaders.<br/><br/> His soldiers proclaimed Gallus emperor, but Decius' other son Hostilian had been acknowledged by the people of Rome as rightful heir. Not wishing to start another civil war, Gallus acquiesced to the will of the Roman people and adopted Hostilian as his son, becoming co-emperors together. Hostilian's death to plague barely months into his rule in 251 allowed Gallus to rule alongside his son Volusianus as new co-emperors.<br/><br/> Like the reign of those before him, Gallus had to contend with revolts and foreign invasions. Aemilianus, governor of the provinces of Moesia Superior and Pannonia, took the initiative and defeated invaders threatening the eastern Roman frontier in 253. He was then proclaimed as emperor by his troops, and marched to Rome to fight for his claim, defeating Gallus and Volusianus in battle, who were subsequently killed by their own troops in August 253.
Of Thraco-Roman origin, Maximinus Thrax (173-238 CE) was a child of low birth, and was seen by the Senate as a barbarian and not a true Roman, despite Caracalla's Antonine Constitution granting citizenship to all freeborn citizens of the Empire. A career soldier, Maximinus rose through the ranks until he commanded a legion himself. He was one of the soldiers who were angered by Emperor Severus Alexander's payments to the Germanic tribes for peace, and plotted with them to assasinate the emperor in 235 CE.<br/><br/> The Praetorian Guard declared Maximinus emperor after the act, a choice that was only grudgingly confirmed by the Senate, who were disgusted at the idea of a peasant becoming emperor. Maximinus despised the nobility, and was heavy-handed in dealing with anyone suspected of plotting against him. In 238 CE, revolt arose in the province of Africa during his reign, with the governor Gordian I and his son, Gordian II, declared co-emperors. The Roman Senate quickly switched allegiance and acknowledged the claim of the Gordians. Maximinus immediately marched on Rome to deal with the Senatorial uprising.<br/><br/> The Gordians were swiftly defeated and died after less than a month of being co-emperors, with the Senate becoming divided on how to act, some preferring Gordian's grandson, Gordian III, while others elected two of their own, Pupienus and Balbinus, as co-emperors. Rome became engulfed in severe riots and street fighting. Maximinus died before he reached Rome, assassinated by his own soldiers during the siege of Aquileia. Pupienus and Balbinus became undisputed co-emperors. Maximinus' reign is often seen as the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century, which would see the Roman Empire almost collapse from internal unrest, economic disaster and foreign invasions.
Hostilian (230-251) was the second son of Emperor Trajan Decius and younger brother of Emperor Herennius Etruscus. He became an imperial prince after his father ascended to the throne, but was constantly in the shadow of his brother, who was heir.<br/><br/> After Decius and Herennius were killed during the Battle of Abrittus on the Danubian frontier in 251, the armies in the Danube declared respected General Trebonianus Gallus as emperor, while Rome acknowledged Hostilian as the heir. To avoid another civil war, Trebonianus adopted Hostilian and chose to respect Rome's will, the two becoming co-emperors.<br/><br/> Only a few months into their co-rule however, the Plague of Cyprian broke out across the Empire, and Hostilian died in the rapidly spreading epidemic, aged 21. Hostilian became the first emperor in 40 years to die of natural causes.<br/><br/>
Born Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, Caligula was the nephew and adopted son of Emperor Tiberius, making him part of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He earned the nickname 'Caligula' (little solder's boot) while accompanying his father, Germanicus, during his campaigns in Germania.<br/><br/> His mother, Agrippina the Elder, became entangled in a deadly feud with Emperor Tiberius that resulted in the destruction of her family and leaving Caligula the sole male survivor. After Tiberius' death in 37 CE, Caligula succeeded his grand uncle as emperor. Surviving sources of his reign are few and far between, but he is often described as initially being a noble and moderate ruler before descending into tyranny, cruelty, sadism, extravagance and sexual perversity.<br/><br/> Caligula was eventually assassinated in 41 CE by a conspiracy of courtiers, senators and officers within his own Praetorian Guard, who murdered him and his family. Attempts by some of the conspirators to re-establish the Roman Republic were thwarted when the Praetorian Guard immediately decalared Caligula's uncle, Claudius, the new emperor.
Born Gaius Octavius, his maternal great-uncle Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BCE, and Octavius, now calling himself Octavian, was named in Caesar's will as his adopted son and heir. He, Mark Antony, and Marcus Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate to defeat the assassins of Caesar. Following their victory at Philippi, the Triumvirate divided the Roman Republic among themselves and ruled as military dictators. Competing ambitions eventually tore the Triumvirate apart and engulfed the Republic into another civil war. Lepidus was driven into exile and stripped of his position, while Antony committed suicide following his defeat at the Battle of Actium by Octavian in 31 BCE.<br/><br/> Following the fall of the Second Triumvirate, Octavian, renamed Augustus, restored the facade of the free Republic, with governmental power vested in the Roman Senate. In reality, however, he still possessed autocratic power over the Republic as a military dictator. Lawfully, Augustus had powers granted to him for life by the Senate, including supreme military command. After several years, Augustus reformed the republican state into one under his sole rule. Rejecting monarchical titles, he instead declared himself Princeps Civitatis ('First Citizen of the State'). The resulting constitutional framework was known as the Principate, the first phase of the Roman Empire.<br/><br/> The reign of Augustus initiated an era of relative peace known as the Pax Romana (The Roman Peace). The Roman world was largely free from large-scale conflict for more than two centuries, though there were continuous wars of imperial expansion on the Empire's frontiers. Augustus dramatically enlarged the Empire through annexation of Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Noricum, and Raetia, as well as expanding possessions in Africa, Germania and Hispania.
Diocletian (244-312) was born as Diocles to a family of low status from Dalmatia. He rose through the ranks of the military to become a cavalry commander under Emperor Carus, and after the deaths of Carus and his son Numerian in 284, Diocletian was proclaimed emperor, defeating Carus' other surviving son Carinus to sanctify his claim.<br/><br/> Diocletian's rule would stabilise the Roman Empire after the Crisis of the Third Century, and he made fellow officer Maximian co-emperor in 286 to help rule. He further appointed Galerius and Constantius as junior co-emperors in 293, establishing a tetrarchy (rule of four) which saw the quarter-division of the empire. He defeated many threats to Rome and secured the empire's borders. He sacked Ctesiphon, capital of the Sassanid Empire, before negotiating a lasting peace arrangement.<br/><br/> Diocletian's rule saw the establishment of the largest and most bureaucratic government in the empire's history, as well as overseeing the Docletianic Persecution (303-311), the largest and bloodiest official persecution of Christianity in the empire's history. He eventually abdicated in 305 after falling sick, becoming the first emperor to voluntarily abdicate his throne, living the rest of his years in his private palace on the Dalmatian coast.
Volusianus (-253), also known as Volusian, was the son of Emperor Trebonianus Gallus, and later made co-emperor alongside his father in 251. Their rule only lasted two years though, as they were murdered by mutinous troops in 253, while marching to face the ususper Aemilian.
Gaius Julius Verus Maximus (217/220-238), sometimes known incorrectly as Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus or Maximinus the Younger, was the son of Thraco-Roman Emperor Maximinus Thrax. Maximus was appointed as Caesar in 236, but held little real power until he was murdered alongside his father in 238 by the Praetorian Guard, during the Siege of Aquileia.
Licinius (263-325) was born to a peasant family and was a close childhood friend of future emperor Galerius, becoming a close confidante to Galerius and entrusted with the eastern provinces when Galerius went to deal with the usurper Maxentius. Galerius elevated Licinius to co-emperor, Augustus in the West, in 308, though he personally had control over the eastern provinces.<br/><br/> After emperors Maxentius and Maximinus II formed an alliance, Licinius was forced to enter into a formal agreement with Constantine I, marrying his half-sister Flavia Julia Constantia. He fought against Maximinus' forces and finally killed him in 313, while Constantine had defeated Maxentius in 312.<br/><br/> The two divided the Roman Empire between them, but civil war soon erupted a year later in 314. The two emperors would constantly war against each other, then make peace before restarting conflict again for the next few years. Licinius was finally defeated for good in 324, with only the pleas of his wife, Constantine's sister, saving him. Licinius was then hanged a year later in 325, accused by Constantine of conspiring to stir revolt among the barbarians.
Licinius (263-325 CE) was born to a peasant family and was a close childhood friend of future emperor Galerius, becoming a close confidante to Galerius and entrusted with the eastern provinces when Galerius went to deal with the usurper Maxentius. Galerius elevated Licinius to co-emperor, Augustus in the West, in 308, though he personally had control over the eastern provinces.<br/><br/> After emperors Maxentius and Maximinus II formed an alliance, Licinius was forced to enter into a formal agreement with Constantine I, marrying his half-sister Flavia Julia Constantia. He fought against Maximinus' forces and finally killed him in 313, while Constantine had defeated Maxentius in 312.<br/><br/> The two divided the Roman Empire between them, but civil war soon erupted a year later in 314. The two emperors would constantly war against each other, then make peace before restarting conflict again for the next few years. Licinius was finally defeated for good in 324, with only the pleas of his wife, Constantine's sister, saving him. Licinius was then hanged a year later in 325, accused by Constantine of conspiring to stir revolt among the barbarians.
Of Thraco-Roman origin, Maximinus Thrax (173-238 CE) was a child of low birth, and was seen by the Senate as a barbarian and not a true Roman, despite Caracalla's Antonine Constitution granting citizenship to all freeborn citizens of the Empire. A career soldier, Maximinus rose through the ranks until he commanded a legion himself. He was one of the soldiers who were angered by Emperor Severus Alexander's payments to the Germanic tribes for peace, and plotted with them to assasinate the emperor in 235 CE.<br/><br/> The Praetorian Guard declared Maximinus emperor after the act, a choice that was only grudgingly confirmed by the Senate, who were disgusted at the idea of a peasant becoming emperor. Maximinus despised the nobility, and was heavy-handed in dealing with anyone suspected of plotting against him. In 238 CE, revolt arose in the province of Africa during his reign, with the governor Gordian I and his son, Gordian II, declared co-emperors. The Roman Senate quickly switched allegiance and acknowledged the claim of the Gordians. Maximinus immediately marched on Rome to deal with the Senatorial uprising.<br/><br/> The Gordians were swiftly defeated and died after less than a month of being co-emperors, with the Senate becoming divided on how to act, some preferring Gordian's grandson, Gordian III, while others elected two of their own, Pupienus and Balbinus, as co-emperors. Rome became engulfed in severe riots and street fighting. Maximinus died before he reached Rome, assassinated by his own soldiers during the siege of Aquileia. Pupienus and Balbinus became undisputed co-emperors. Maximinus' reign is often seen as the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century, which would see the Roman Empire almost collapse from internal unrest, economic disaster and foreign invasions.
Of Thraco-Roman origin, Maximinus Thrax (173-238 CE) was a child of low birth, and was seen by the Senate as a barbarian and not a true Roman, despite Caracalla's Antonine Constitution granting citizenship to all freeborn citizens of the Empire. A career soldier, Maximinus rose through the ranks until he commanded a legion himself. He was one of the soldiers who were angered by Emperor Severus Alexander's payments to the Germanic tribes for peace, and plotted with them to assasinate the emperor in 235 CE.<br/><br/> The Praetorian Guard declared Maximinus emperor after the act, a choice that was only grudgingly confirmed by the Senate, who were disgusted at the idea of a peasant becoming emperor. Maximinus despised the nobility, and was heavy-handed in dealing with anyone suspected of plotting against him. In 238 CE, revolt arose in the province of Africa during his reign, with the governor Gordian I and his son, Gordian II, declared co-emperors. The Roman Senate quickly switched allegiance and acknowledged the claim of the Gordians. Maximinus immediately marched on Rome to deal with the Senatorial uprising.<br/><br/> The Gordians were swiftly defeated and died after less than a month of being co-emperors, with the Senate becoming divided on how to act, some preferring Gordian's grandson, Gordian III, while others elected two of their own, Pupienus and Balbinus, as co-emperors. Rome became engulfed in severe riots and street fighting. Maximinus died before he reached Rome, assassinated by his own soldiers during the siege of Aquileia. Pupienus and Balbinus became undisputed co-emperors. Maximinus' reign is often seen as the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century, which would see the Roman Empire almost collapse from internal unrest, economic disaster and foreign invasions.
Of Thraco-Roman origin, Maximinus Thrax (173-238 CE) was a child of low birth, and was seen by the Senate as a barbarian and not a true Roman, despite Caracalla's Antonine Constitution granting citizenship to all freeborn citizens of the Empire. A career soldier, Maximinus rose through the ranks until he commanded a legion himself. He was one of the soldiers who were angered by Emperor Severus Alexander's payments to the Germanic tribes for peace, and plotted with them to assasinate the emperor in 235 CE.<br/><br/> The Praetorian Guard declared Maximinus emperor after the act, a choice that was only grudgingly confirmed by the Senate, who were disgusted at the idea of a peasant becoming emperor. Maximinus despised the nobility, and was heavy-handed in dealing with anyone suspected of plotting against him. In 238 CE, revolt arose in the province of Africa during his reign, with the governor Gordian I and his son, Gordian II, declared co-emperors. The Roman Senate quickly switched allegiance and acknowledged the claim of the Gordians. Maximinus immediately marched on Rome to deal with the Senatorial uprising.<br/><br/> The Gordians were swiftly defeated and died after less than a month of being co-emperors, with the Senate becoming divided on how to act, some preferring Gordian's grandson, Gordian III, while others elected two of their own, Pupienus and Balbinus, as co-emperors. Rome became engulfed in severe riots and street fighting. Maximinus died before he reached Rome, assassinated by his own soldiers during the siege of Aquileia. Pupienus and Balbinus became undisputed co-emperors. Maximinus' reign is often seen as the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century, which would see the Roman Empire almost collapse from internal unrest, economic disaster and foreign invasions.
Pompeia (1st Century BCE) was the second wife of Julius Caesar. The two were married in 67 BCE, after Caesar's first wife Cornelia had died the year previous. Not much is known about her, aside from the controversial events surrounding her hosting the festival of the Bona Dea ('good goddess') in 62 BCE, a festival which men were not permitted to attend. Despite this, a young patrician named Publius Clodius Pulcher snuck in disguised as a woman, supposedly to try to seduce Pompeia. He was caught and prosecuted for sacrilege, and Caesar divorced Pompeia, uttering 'my wife ought not even to be under suspicion', which gave rise to the proverb 'Caesar's wife must be above suspicion'.
Born Livia Drusilla (58 BCE - 29 CE) but later known as Julia Drusilla after her adoption into the Julian family in 14 CE, Livia was Emperor Augustus' third wife and his spouse throughout his reign as emperor. She was granted the honorific title of Augusta. The mother of Tiberius, paternal grandmother to Claudius, paternal great-grandmother of Caligula, and maternal great-great-grandmother of Nero, she was deified by Claudius after her death.<br/><br/> She was known throughout her life for her influence and her capacity as privileged advisor and counselor to both Augustus and Tiberius later in life, and her and Augustus became the role model for proper Roman households. She was also ambitious, pushing her sons to power, with rumours that she ordered the assassinations of all rival claimants to emperor.<br/><br/> During Tiberius' early reign, Livius held unofficial but very real power, but their relationship would later sour, Tiberius becoming resentful of the idea that she had given him the throne. She finally died of illness in 29 CE, with Tiberius refusing to attend her funeral and vetoing all honours the Senate wished to grant her posthumously. Her honours would later be restored during the reign of her grandson Claudius.
Born Livia Drusilla (58 BCE - 29 CE) but later known as Julia Drusilla after her adoption into the Julian family in 14 CE, Livia was Emperor Augustus' third wife and his spouse throughout his reign as emperor. She was granted the honorific title of Augusta. The mother of Tiberius, paternal grandmother to Claudius, paternal great-grandmother of Caligula, and maternal great-great-grandmother of Nero, she was deified by Claudius after her death.<br/><br/> She was known throughout her life for her influence and her capacity as privileged advisor and counselor to both Augustus and Tiberius later in life, and her and Augustus became the role model for proper Roman households. She was also ambitious, pushing her sons to power, with rumours that she ordered the assassinations of all rival claimants to emperor.<br/><br/> During Tiberius' early reign, Livius held unofficial but very real power, but their relationship would later sour, Tiberius becoming resentful of the idea that she had given him the throne. She finally died of illness in 29 CE, with Tiberius refusing to attend her funeral and vetoing all honours the Senate wished to grant her posthumously. Her honours would later be restored during the reign of her grandson Claudius.
Born Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE), Julius Caesar was one the most infamous figures in history. A Roman politican, general and author, he played a critical role in the fall of the Roman Republic and paved the way for the rise of the Roman Empire. His political alliance alongside Crassus and Pompey, first formed in 60 BCE, would dominate Roman politics for many years. His victories in the Gallic Wars extended the Republic's territories all the way to the English Channel and the Rhine, and he became the first Roman general to build a bridge across the Rhine, as well as starting the invasion of Britain.<br/><br/> With these achievements under his belt, he amassed unmatched military power to himself, soon eclipsing his political ally Pompey. The Senate, also fearful of his growing power, demanded he step down from military command and return to Rome, which he refused, and marked his defiance by crossing the Rubicon with a legion in 49 BCE, illegally entering Roman Italy with an army and causing a civil war that he quickly crushed.<br/><br/> Taking control of the government, Caesar began implementing various social and political changes, declaring himself 'dictator in perpetuity'. The Senate still held much contempt for him however, and during the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BCE, Caesar was assassinated by a conspiracy of rebellious senators led by former friend and ally, Marcus Junius Brutus. A new string of civil wars ensued, ultimately concluding with Julius Caesar's adopted heir, Octavian, emerging victorious and becoming emperor.
Born Livia Drusilla (58 BCE - 29 CE) but later known as Julia Drusilla after her adoption into the Julian family in 14 CE, Livia was Emperor Augustus' third wife and his spouse throughout his reign as emperor. She was granted the honorific title of Augusta. The mother of Tiberius, paternal grandmother to Claudius, paternal great-grandmother of Caligula, and maternal great-great-grandmother of Nero, she was deified by Claudius after her death.<br/><br/> She was known throughout her life for her influence and her capacity as privileged advisor and counselor to both Augustus and Tiberius later in life, and her and Augustus became the role model for proper Roman households. She was also ambitious, pushing her sons to power, with rumours that she ordered the assassinations of all rival claimants to emperor.<br/><br/> During Tiberius' early reign, Livius held unofficial but very real power, but their relationship would later sour, Tiberius becoming resentful of the idea that she had given him the throne. She finally died of illness in 29 CE, with Tiberius refusing to attend her funeral and vetoing all honours the Senate wished to grant her posthumously. Her honours would later be restored during the reign of her grandson Claudius.
Milonia Caesonia (- 41 CE) was a Roman empress and the fourth wife of Caligula. Little is written about her, though she is described as neither beautiful nor young, with a reckless extravagance and uncontrolled wantonness, and that she was loved devotedly and passionately by Caligula. Some stories claim that Caligula would often parade Caesonia in front of his troops, and sometimes would parade her naked in front of select friends. Caesonia and her daughter, Julia Drusilla, were murdered hours after Caligula's assassination.
Born Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, Caligula was the nephew and adopted son of Emperor Tiberius, making him part of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He earned the nickname 'Caligula' (little solder's boot) while accompanying his father, Germanicus, during his campaigns in Germania.<br/><br/> His mother, Agrippina the Elder, became entangled in a deadly feud with Emperor Tiberius that resulted in the destruction of her family and leaving Caligula the sole male survivor. After Tiberius' death in 37 CE, Caligula succeeded his grand uncle as emperor. Surviving sources of his reign are few and far between, but he is often described as initially being a noble and moderate ruler before descending into tyranny, cruelty, sadism, extravagance and sexcual perversity.<br/><br/> Caligula was eventually assassinated in 41 CE by a conspiracy of courtierts, senators and officers within his own Praetorian Guard, who murdered him and his family. Attempts by some of the conspirators to re-establish the Roman Republic were thwarted when the Praetorian Guard immediately decalared Caligula's uncle, Claudius, the new emperor.
Caesar Augustus (63 BCE– 14 CE), also known as Octavian, was the first and among the most important of the Roman Emperors.<br/><br/> Augustus' most visible impact on everyday culture is the eighth month of the year, which was renamed in Augustus' honor in 8 BCE because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, occurred during this month.
Caesar Augustus (63 BCE– 14 CE), also known as Octavian, was the first and among the most important of the Roman Emperors.<br/><br/> Augustus' most visible impact on everyday culture is the eighth month of the year, which was renamed in Augustus' honor in 8 BCE because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, occurred during this month.
Caesar Augustus (63 BCE – 14 CE), also known as Octavian, was the first and among the most important of the Roman Emperors.<br/><br/> Augustus' most visible impact on everyday culture is the eighth month of the year, which was renamed in Augustus' honor in 8 BCE because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, occurred during this month.
Born Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, Caligula was the nephew and adopted son of Emperor Tiberius, making him part of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He earned the nickname 'Caligula' (little solder's boot) while accompanying his father, Germanicus, during his campaigns in Germania.<br/><br/> His mother, Agrippina the Elder, became entangled in a deadly feud with Emperor Tiberius that resulted in the destruction of her family and leaving Caligula the sole male survivor. After Tiberius' death in 37 CE, Caligula succeeded his grand uncle as emperor. Surviving sources of his reign are few and far between, but he is often described as initially being a noble and moderate ruler before descending into tyranny, cruelty, sadism, extravagance and sexual perversity.<br/><br/> Caligula was eventually assassinated in 41 CE by a conspiracy of courtiers, senators and officers within his own Praetorian Guard, who murdered him and his family. Attempts by some of the conspirators to re-establish the Roman Republic were thwarted when the Praetorian Guard immediately decalared Caligula's uncle, Claudius, the new emperor.
Gaius Julius Verus Maximus (217/220 - 238), sometimes known incorrectly as Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus or Maximinus the Younger, was the son of Thraco-Roman Emperor Maximinus Thrax. Maximus was appointed as Caesar in 236, but held little real power until he was murdered alongside his father in 238 by the Praetorian Guard, during the Siege of Aquileia.
Caesar Augustus (63 BCE– 14 CE), also known as Octavian, was the first and among the most important of the Roman Emperors.<br/><br/> Augustus' most visible impact on everyday culture is the eighth month of the year, which was renamed in Augustus' honor in 8 BCE because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, occurred during this month.
Of Thraco-Roman origin, Maximinus Thrax (173 - 238 CE) was a child of low birth, and was seen by the Senate as a barbarian and not a true Roman, despite Caracalla's Antonine Constitution granting citizenship to all freeborn citizens of the Empire. A career soldier, Maximinus rose through the ranks until he commanded a legion himself. He was one of the soldiers who were angered by Emperor Severus Alexander's payments to the Germanic tribes for peace, and plotted with them to assasinate the emperor in 235 CE.<br/><br/> The Praetorian Guard declared Maximinus emperor after the act, a choice that was only grudgingly confirmed by the Senate, who were disgusted at the idea of a peasant becoming emperor. Maximinus despised the nobility, and was heavy-handed in dealing with anyone suspected of plotting against him. In 238 CE, revolt arose in the province of Africa during his reign, with the governor Gordian I and his son, Gordian II, declared co-emperors. The Roman Senate quickly switched allegiance and acknowledged the claim of the Gordians. Maximinus immediately marched on Rome to deal with the Senatorial uprising.<br/><br/> The Gordians were swiftly defeated and died after less than a month of being co-emperors, with the Senate becoming divided on how to act, some preferring Gordian's grandson, Gordian III, while others elected two of their own, Pupienus and Balbinus, as co-emperors. Rome became engulfed in severe riots and street fighting. Maximinus died before he reached Rome, assassinated by his own soldiers during the siege of Aquileia. Pupienus and Balbinus became undisputed co-emperors. Maximinus' reign is often seen as the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century, which would see the Roman Empire almost collapse from internal unrest, economic disaster and foreign invasions.
Pescennius Niger (135/140-194) was born into an old Italian equestrian family, and was the first member to become a Roman senator. He was appointed by Commodus to be imperial legate of Syria in 191, where he was serving when news came of the murder of Pertinax in 193 and the auctioning of the imperial throne to Didius Julianus.<br/><br/> Niger was a well regarded public figure, and the citizens of Rome called out for him to return to Rome and claim the title from Julianus. Consequently, the eastern legions proclaimed Niger as emperor in 193, the second emperor to claim the imperial title after Septimius Severus. The resulting chaos and civil war was known as the Year of the Five Emperors, with claimants all across the Roman Empire vying for the throne.<br/><br/> Niger and Severus fought in the east to see who would become undisputed emperor, though Niger was militarily outmatched and outnumbered. Severus offered Niger the chance to surrender and go into exile, but he refused, and was eventually captured in 194. He was beheaded, with his severed head travelling to Byzantium first in an attempt to cow the city into surrendering, before eventually arriving in Rome where it was displayed for all to see.
Caesar Augustus (63 BCE– 14 CE), also known as Octavian, was the first and among the most important of the Roman Emperors.<br/><br/> Augustus' most visible impact on everyday culture is the eighth month of the year, which was renamed in Augustus' honor in 8 BCE because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, occurred during this month.
Trajan Decius (201-251) was a distinguished senator and governor in the Roman Empire. When revolts and uprisings began occurring throughout the Empire in the last years of Philip the Arab's reign, Decius was sent to quell a revolt in the Balkan provinces of Moesia and Pannonia. After defeating the revolt, Decius was proclaimed Emperor by his troops, and he fought against and killed Philip in 249, entering Rome and being recognised as Emperor by the Roman Senate.<br/><br/> As Emperor, Decius focused on defeating external threats to the Empire, as well as restoring public piety and strengthening the State religion, which involved the persecution of Christians as well as an Imperial edict declaring all citizens make a sacrifice for the Emperor and Empire every year on a certain day.<br/><br/> A renewed incursion by the Goths forced Decius to march and confront them in battle, alongside his son and co-emperor, Herennius Etruscus. During the decisive Battle of Abritus, Etruscus was killed early on by an arrow, and Decius was himself later killed on the field of battle, when his entire army was entangled and annihilated in a swamp. Decius and his son were the first two Roman Emperors to be officially recorded dying in battle against a foreign enemy, with Gordian III's manner of death still debated.
Born Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, Caligula was the nephew and adopted son of Emperor Tiberius, making him part of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He earned the nickname 'Caligula' (little solder's boot) while accompanying his father, Germanicus, during his campaigns in Germania.<br/><br/> His mother, Agrippina the Elder, became entangled in a deadly feud with Emperor Tiberius that resulted in the destruction of her family and leaving Caligula the sole male survivor. After Tiberius' death in 37 CE, Caligula succeeded his grand uncle as emperor. Surviving sources of his reign are few and far between, but he is often described as initially being a noble and moderate ruler before descending into tyranny, cruelty, sadism, extravagance and sexual perversity.<br/><br/> Caligula was eventually assassinated in 41 CE by a conspiracy of courtiers, senators and officers within his own Praetorian Guard, who murdered him and his family. Attempts by some of the conspirators to re-establish the Roman Republic were thwarted when the Praetorian Guard immediately decalared Caligula's uncle, Claudius, the new emperor.