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The First Anglo-Afghan War was fought between British India and Afghanistan from 1839 to 1842. It was one of the first major conflicts during the Great Game, the 19th century competition for power and influence in Central Asia between the United Kingdom and Russia, and also marked one of the worst setbacks inflicted on British power in the region after the consolidation of British Raj by the East India Company.
Poland: Engraved portrait of Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish astronomer and mathematician, c. 1850. Nicolaus Copernicus (19 February 1473 - 24 May 1543) was a Renaissance astronomer and mathematician from Royal Prussia, part of the Kingdom of Poland. Copernicus was a polyglot and polymath, and obtained a doctorate in canon law. Throughout his life, he served also as a governor, diplomat, economist, physician, translator and classic scholar.
Yang Zengxin (1859 — 7 July 1928), born in Mengzi, Honghe, Yunnan in 1859. He was the ruler of Xinjiang after the Xinhai Revolution in 1911 until his assassination in 1928.
The National Museum of Colombo was established on 1 January 1877, by Sir William Henry Gregory, the British Governor of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). The museum holds many important collections including the throne and crown of the Kandyan monarchs.<br/><br/> Since 1885, by law, a copy of every document printed in the country has to be deposited in the museum library. At present the library accommodates over 12 million titles.
From 1861 to 1890 the Munich publishing firm of Braun and Schneider published plates of historic and contemporary costume in their magazine Munchener Bilderbogen.<br/><br/> These plates were eventually collected in book form and published at the turn of the century in Germany and England.
The Aceh War, also known as the Dutch War or the Infidel War (1873–1914), was an armed military conflict between the Sultanate of Aceh and the Netherlands which was triggered by discussions between representatives of Aceh and the United Kingdom in Singapore during early 1873.<br/><br/> The war was part of a series of conflicts in the late 19th century that consolidated Dutch rule over modern-day Indonesia.
The Aceh War, also known as the Dutch War or the Infidel War (1873–1914), was an armed military conflict between the Sultanate of Aceh and the Netherlands which was triggered by discussions between representatives of Aceh and the United Kingdom in Singapore during early 1873.<br/><br/> The war was part of a series of conflicts in the late 19th century that consolidated Dutch rule over modern-day Indonesia.
The Aceh War, also known as the Dutch War or the Infidel War (1873–1914), was an armed military conflict between the Sultanate of Aceh and the Netherlands which was triggered by discussions between representatives of Aceh and the United Kingdom in Singapore during early 1873.<br/><br/> The war was part of a series of conflicts in the late 19th century that consolidated Dutch rule over modern-day Indonesia.
From 1861 to 1890 the Munich publishing firm of Braun and Schneider published plates of historic and contemporary costume in their magazine Munchener Bilderbogen.<br/><br/> These plates were eventually collected in book form and published at the turn of the century in Germany and England.
Doumer was born in Aurillac, in the Cantal département, in France on 22 March 1857. He was Governor-General of French Indochina from 1897 to 1902. After returning from French Indochina, Doumer served as President of the Chamber of Deputies from 1902 to 1905.<br/><br/> He was elected President of the French Republic on 13 May 1931, defeating the better known Aristide Briand, and replacing Gaston Doumergue. On 6 May 1932, he was shot in Paris at the opening of a book fair by Paul Gorguloff, a mentally unstable Russian émigré. He died at 04:37 a.m. on 7 May.<br/><br/> The Long Bien Bridge in Hanoi was built during his term as Governor-General and was named for him. It became a well-known landmark and target for US pilots during the Second Indochina War.
Before becoming Governor of Aceh, Demenni participated in the 1877, 1878 and 1879 military campaigns in Aceh as a lieutenant-colonel.
When the British captured Ghazni in July 1839, one of the most important consequences was the capture of its governor, Ghulam Haider Khan, the fourth son of Dost Mohammed. Fearing for his life, Ghulam tried to escape from the city, but was intercepted and eventually received and pardoned by the incumbent Emir, Shah Shuja.<br/><br/> When Dost Mohammed regained his position in Afghanistan, Ghulam became prime minister of Kabul, succeeding his brother Akbar. In so doing, Ghulam became Dost Mohammed's most likely successor and thus upset his two older brothers who felt they had been sidelined. According to Rattray, he was a large, good-looking and very stout young man who resembled his father. This portrait is a copy of a picture owned by Dowager Lady Keane, rather than a study from life.
Justin Perkins (1805-1869) was born on a farm in Massachusetts, and educated at Amherst and the Andover Theological Seminary. From 1833 until shortly before his death in 1869, he served as missionary to the Nestorian Christians of Qajar Iran (1794-1925) under the auspices of the American Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions. He was the first American missionary in Qajar Iran, as well as an eminent scholar of Syriac.<br/><br/> He developed an alphabet for the writing of modern Syriac, which was the Nestorians' vernacular, and established a press at Urmia (spelled Oroomiah by Perkins) in western Azerbaijan to print his translations of the New Testament (1846) and the Old Testament (1852) in both liturgical and modern Syriac.<br/><br/> Urmia, sometimes spelled, Orumieh, during the majority of the Pahlavi Dynasty (1925–1979) called Rezaiyeh), is a city in Northwestern Iran and the capital of West Azerbaijan Province. The city lies on an altitude of 1,330 m above sea level on the Shahar Chay river (City River). Urmia is the 10th most populated city in Iran with a population of about 600,000. The population is predominantly Azerbaijani with significant Kurdish, Assyrian and Armenian minorities.
Hồ Chí Minh, born Nguyễn Sinh Cung and also known as Nguyễn Ái Quốc (19 May 1890 – 3 September 1969) was a Vietnamese Communist revolutionary leader who was prime minister (1946–1955) and president (1945–1969) of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam).<br/><br/> He formed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and led the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War until his death. Hồ led the Viet Minh independence movement from 1941 onward, establishing the communist-governed Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945 and defeating the French Union in 1954 at Dien Bien Phu.<br/><br/> He lost political power inside North Vietnam in the late 1950s, but remained as the highly visible figurehead president until his death.
Hugh Clifford intended to follow his father, a distinguished colonial general, into the British Army, but later decided to join the civil service in the Straits Settlements, with the assistance of his relative Sir Frederick Weld, the then Governor of the Straits Settlements and also the British High Commissioner in Malaya. He was later transferred to the British Protectorate of the Federated Malay States. Clifford arrived in Malaya in 1883, aged 17.<br/><br/>He first became a cadet in the State of Perak. During his twenty years in Perak, Clifford socialised with the local Malays and studied their language and culture deeply. He served as British Resident at Pahang, 1896–1900 and 1901–1903, and Governor of North Borneo, 1900–1901.<br/><br/>In 1903, he left Malaya to take the post of Colonial Secretary of Trinidad. Later he was appointed Governor of the Gold Coast, 1912–1919, Nigeria, 1919–1925, and Ceylon, 1925–1927. He continued to write stories and novels about Malayan life. His last posting was as Governor of the Straits Settlements and British High Commissioner in Malaya from 1927 until 1930. He wrote Farther India, which chronicles European explorations and discoveries in Southeast Asia.
Sir William Jeffcott (1800 - 1855), born in Dublin, was a judge. In 1849 he was appointed Recorder of Singapore and Malacca (Melaka). In October 1855 he was appointed as a judge in Bombay, but died before receiving notification.<br/><br/> Colonel John Alexander Bannerman (5 June 1759 – 8 August 1819) was appointed Governor of Prince of Wales' Island (Penang Island, Malaysia) and Province Wellesley (Seberang Perai) (both forming the settlement of Penang) in 1817 and also Treasurer from 1818.
Yahyâ ibn Mahmûd al-Wâsitî was a 13th-century Arab Islamic artist. Al-Wasiti was born in Wasit in southern Iraq. He was noted for his illustrations of the Maqam of al-Hariri.<br/><br/> Maqāma (literally 'assemblies') are an (originally) Arabic literary genre of rhymed prose with intervals of poetry in which rhetorical extravagance is conspicuous. The 10th century author Badī' al-Zaman al-Hamadhāni is said to have invented the form, which was extended by al-Hariri of Basra in the next century. Both authors' maqāmāt center on trickster figures whose wanderings and exploits in speaking to assemblies of the powerful are conveyed by a narrator.<br/><br/> Manuscripts of al-Harīrī's Maqāmāt, anecdotes of a roguish wanderer Abu Zayd from Saruj, were frequently illustrated with miniatures.
Jean Baptiste Paul Beau was Governor-General of French Indochina from October 1902 to February 1908.<br/><br/> Conquered by France in 1859, Saigon was influenced by the French during their colonial occupation of Vietnam, and a number of classical Western-style buildings and French villas in the city reflect this. Saigon had, in 1929, a population of 123,890, including 12,100 French.
French Indochina (French: Indochine française; Khmer: សហភាព​ឥណ្ឌូចិន, Vietnamese: Đông Dương thuộc Pháp, frequently abbreviated to Đông Pháp) was part of the French colonial empire in southeast Asia. A federation of the three Vietnamese regions, Tonkin (North), Annam (Central), and Cochinchina (South), as well as Cambodia, was formed in 1887.
French Indochina (French: Indochine française; Khmer: សហភាព​ឥណ្ឌូចិន, Vietnamese: Đông Dương thuộc Pháp, frequently abbreviated to Đông Pháp) was part of the French colonial empire in southeast Asia. A federation of the three Vietnamese regions, Tonkin (North), Annam (Central), and Cochinchina (South), as well as Cambodia, was formed in 1887.
Paul Bert (17 October 1833 – 11 November 1886) was a French zoologist, physiologist and politician.<br/><br/> Early in 1886 he was appointed resident-general in Annam and Tonkin, and died of dysentery at Hanoi on 11 November of that year.
Yahyâ ibn Mahmûd al-Wâsitî was a 13th-century Arab Islamic artist. Al-Wasiti was born in Wasit in southern Iraq. He was noted for his illustrations of the Maqam of al-Hariri.<br/><br/> Maqāma (literally 'assemblies') are an (originally) Arabic literary genre of rhymed prose with intervals of poetry in which rhetorical extravagance is conspicuous. The 10th century author Badī' al-Zaman al-Hamadhāni is said to have invented the form, which was extended by al-Hariri of Basra in the next century. Both authors' maqāmāt center on trickster figures whose wanderings and exploits in speaking to assemblies of the powerful are conveyed by a narrator.<br/><br/> Manuscripts of al-Harīrī's Maqāmāt, anecdotes of a roguish wanderer Abu Zayd from Saruj, were frequently illustrated with miniatures.
Phạm Văn Đồng (1919—2008) was a South Vietnamese ARVN general. In 1965, as military governor of Sàigòn, he repressed Buddhist demonstrations instigated by the monks Thích Trí Quang and Thích Tâm Châu. Đồng was regarded highly by American and French officers, and well respected by many ARVN officers.<br/><br/> A staunch nationalist and anti-communist, he was considered an ally to various rightist nationalist groups and private armies, including the labor union, the Northern Catholics, several Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng (Việt Quốc) factions, multiple Đại Việt groups, Việt Nam Cách Mạng Đồng Minh Hội (Việt Cách) high-ranking members, Duy Dân and Hòa Hảo leaders. Dong fell foul of Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ in 1967 and was dismissed from the ARVN. He went into exile in the United States after the Fall of Saigon in 1975 and died in Pennsylvania in 2008.
A Deputy Governor of Kamboja as depicted in Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and Cochin-China, exhibiting a view of the actual State of these Kingdoms by John Crawfurd (1783-1868), London, 1828.<br/><br/> During the late 18th and early 19th century eastern Cambodia was subject to Vietnamese suzerainty. Vietnamese emperor, Minh Mang attempted unsuccessfully to force the Cambodians to adopt Vietnamese customs, mores and dress.
Somdet Phra Narai (1633 - 11 July 1688) or Somdet Phra Ramathibodi III was the king of Ayutthaya from 1656 to 1688. His reign was the most prosperous during the Ayutthaya period and saw great commercial and diplomatic activities with foreign nations including the Persians and the West.<br/><br/> During the latter years of his reign, Narai gave the Greek adventurer Constantine Phaulkon so much power that technically he became the chancellor of the state. Through Phaulkon's arrangements, the Siamese kingdom came into close diplomatic relations with the court of Louis XIV and French soldiers and missionaries filled the Siamese aristocracy and defense.<br/><br/> The dominance of French officials led to frictions between them and the native mandarins and led to the turbulent revolution of 1688 towards the end of his reign. Narai’s reign was also known for a small war with England in 1687 and the invasion of Burmese Lanna in 1662.
The term Anglo-Egyptian Sudan refers to the period between 1891 and 1956 when Sudan was administered as a condominium of Egypt and the United Kingdom.
Mehmet Emin Pasha (March 28, 1840 – October 23, 1892) — born Isaak Eduard Schnitzer — was a physician, naturalist and governor of the Egyptian province of Equatoria (Sourthern Sudan) on the upper Nile. 'Pasha' was a title conferred on him in 1886 and thereafter he was referred to as 'Emin Pasha'.<br/><br/> The revolt of Muhammad Ahmad that began in 1881 had cut Equatoria off from the outside world by 1883, and the following year Karam Allah marched south to capture Equatoria and Emin. In 1885 Emin and most of his forces withdrew further south, to Wadelai near Lake Albert. Cut off from communications to the north, he was still able to exchange mail with Zanzibar through Buganda.<br/><br/> Emin was rescued by Henry Morton Stanley and the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition in 1888, arriving at Bagamoyo on the Tanzanian coast in 1890.
Mehmet Emin Pasha (March 28, 1840 – October 23, 1892) — born Isaak Eduard Schnitzer — was a physician, naturalist and governor of the Egyptian province of Equatoria (Sourthern Sudan) on the upper Nile. 'Pasha' was a title conferred on him in 1886 and thereafter he was referred to as 'Emin Pasha'.<br/><br/> The revolt of Muhammad Ahmad that began in 1881 had cut Equatoria off from the outside world by 1883, and the following year Karam Allah marched south to capture Equatoria and Emin. In 1885 Emin and most of his forces withdrew further south, to Wadelai near Lake Albert. Cut off from communications to the north, he was still able to exchange mail with Zanzibar through Buganda.<br/><br/> Emin was rescued by Henry Morton Stanley and the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition in 1888, arriving at Bagamoyo on the Tanzanian coast in 1890.
Somdet Phra Narai (1633 - 11 July 1688) or Somdet Phra Ramathibodi III was the king of Ayutthaya from 1656 to 1688. His reign was the most prosperous during the Ayutthaya period and saw great commercial and diplomatic activities with foreign nations including the Persians and the West.<br/><br/> During the latter years of his reign, Narai gave the Greek adventurer Constantine Phaulkon so much power that technically he became the chancellor of the state. Through Phaulkon's arrangements, the Siamese kingdom came into close diplomatic relations with the court of Louis XIV and French soldiers and missionaries filled the Siamese aristocracy and defense. The dominance of French officials led to frictions between them and the native mandarins and led to the turbulent revolution of 1688 towards the end of his reign. Narai’s reign was also known for a small war with England in 1687 and the invasion of Burmese Lanna in 1662.
Phraya Ratsadanupradit Mahison Phakdi, born Khaw Sim Bee, was a Thai provincial administrator. He was the youngest of the six sons of Khaw Soo Cheang, a trader from Zhangzhou in China.<br/><br/> As a member of the na Ranong family which held the governor's post in Ranong for generations, Khaw was assigned to become governour of Trang in 1890.<br/><br/> His most significant contribution was the introduction of the rubber tree to Thailand, which at his time was only grown in Malaysia. It has since become one of the major crops of Thailand. He also initiated the connection of Trang with Nakhon Si Thammarat and Phatthalung by road as well as the railroad connection to Nakhon Si Thammarat, one of the first railroads of Thailand.<br/><br/> In 1902 he was assigned to become the commissioner of Monthon Phuket, where he stayed till his death in 1916. A monument commemorating him was erected in the city of Trang.
The Dutch East India Company, or VOC, was a chartered company granted a monopoly by the Dutch government to carry out colonial activities in Asia. It was the first multinational corporation in the world and the first company to issue stock. It was also arguably the world's first megacorporation, possessing quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, imprison and execute convicts, negotiate treaties, coin money and establish colonies.<br/><br/> The VOC was set up in 1602 to gain a foothold in the East Indies (Indonesia) for the Dutch in the lucrative spice trade, which until that point was dominated by the Portuguese. It also traded with India and established ports, factories and warehouses there.<br/><br/> Between 1602 and 1796, the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade on 4,785 ships, and netted more than 2.5 million tons of Asian trade goods.
Khaw Sim Bee, also known as Phraya Ratsadanupradit Mahison Phakdi, was governor of Phuket from 1902 until his death in 1916. He is believed to have been the first man to introduce the rubber tree to Thailand.<br/><br/> Phuket, formerly known as Talang and, in Western sources, Junk Ceylon (a corruption of the Malay Tanjung Salang, i.e. 'Cape Salang'), is one of the southern provinces (changwat) of Thailand. Neighbouring provinces are (from north clockwise) Phang Nga and Krabi, but as Phuket is an island there are no land boundaries.<br/><br/> Phuket, which is approximately the size of Singapore, is Thailand’s largest island. The island is connected to mainland Thailand by two bridges. It is situated off the west coast of Thailand in the Andaman Sea.<br/><br/> Phuket formerly derived its wealth from tin and rubber, and enjoyed a rich and colorful history. The island was on one of the major trading routes between India and China, and was frequently mentioned in foreign ship logs of Portuguese, French, Dutch and English traders. The region now derives much of its income from tourism.
J. B. (Joannes Benedictus) van Heutsz (1851—1924), was a Dutch military commander who was appointed governor general of the Dutch East Indies in 1904 following his defeat of the Sultanate of Aceh after more than 30 years of conflict.<br/><br/> In this 1908 portrait, van Heutsz sports the orange ribbon of the insignia of the the Order of William, introduced by King Willem I in 1815. But although van Heutsz was richly rewarded for his heroic role in concluding the Aceh War, historians note that the Dutch massacred thousands of civilians, including women and children, in their determination to establish Aceh as an Dutch East Indies colony.
Herman Willem Daendels (1762 –1818) was a Dutch soldier who became Governor General of the Asian colonies. After heavy criticism of his leadership, he was replaced in 1811, and became an officer in the French army. King William I of the Netherlands then appointed Daendels Governor General of the Dutch Colonies on the west coast of Africa. He died of yellow fever there in 1818.
Mamluks were originally soldiers or slaves who converted to Islam. A Mamluk army seized control of Egypt and Syria and established the ‘Mamluk Sultanate’ from 1250 to 1517 during which time they defeated or repelled Mongol invaders and Christian crusaders.
The Atlas Maior is the final version of Joan Blaeu's atlas, published in Amsterdam between 1662 and 1672, in Latin (11 volumes), French (12 volumes), Dutch (9 volumes), German (10 volumes) and Spanish (10 volumes), containing 594 maps and around 3000 pages of text.<br/><br/> It was the largest and most expensive book published in the seventeenth century. Earlier, much smaller versions, titled Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, sive, Atlas Novus, were published from 1634 onwards.
Lieutenant General Sir Henry Pottinger, 1st Baronet, GCB, PC (Chinese: 砵甸乍; 3 October 1789 – 18 March 1856), was an Anglo-Irish soldier and colonial administrator who became the first Governor of Hong Kong.<br/><br/> Pottinger accepted Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston's offer of the post of envoy and plenipotentiary in China and superintendent of British trade, thus replacing Charles Elliot. In 1841, when Pottinger was sent to China, Palmerston instructed him to 'examine with care the natural capacities of Hong Kong, and you will not agree to give up that Island unless you should find that you can exchange it for another in the neighbourhood of Canton, better adapted for the purposes in view; equally defensible; and affording sufficient shelter for Ships of War and Commerce'.<br/><br/> After Pottinger led the navy and defeated Yishan at Humen, he negotiated the terms of the Treaty of Nanking (1842), which ended the First Opium War and ceded Hong Kong Island to the United Kingdom. Pottinger became the second administrator of Hong Kong (1841–1843) and the first Governor of Hong Kong (1843–1844).<br/><br/> When he forwarded the treaty to Aberdeen, Pottinger remarked, 'the retention of Hong Kong is the only point in which I have intentionally exceeded my modified instructions, but every single hour I have passed in this superb country has convinced me of the necessity and desirability of our possessing such a settlement as an emporium for our trade and a place from which Her Majesty's subjects in China may be alike protected and controlled'.
On 8 December, 1941, Netherlands declared war on Japan. On the night of 10-11 January, 1942, the Japanese attacked Menado in Sulawesi. At about the same moment they attacked Tarakan, a major oil extraction centre and port in the north east of Borneo. On 27 February, the Allied fleet was defeated in the Battle of the Java Sea. The following day, Japanese troops landed on four places along the northern coast of Java almost undisturbed. On 8 March, the Allied forces in Indonesia surrendered. The colonial army was consigned to detention camps and Indonesian soldiers were released. European civilians were interned once Japanese or Indonesian replacements could be found for senior and technical positions.
Lieutenant General Sir Henry Pottinger, 1st Baronet, GCB, PC (Chinese: 砵甸乍; 3 October 1789 – 18 March 1856), was an Anglo-Irish soldier and colonial administrator who became the first Governor of Hong Kong.<br/><br/> Pottinger accepted Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston's offer of the post of envoy and plenipotentiary in China and superintendent of British trade, thus replacing Charles Elliot. In 1841, when Pottinger was sent to China, Palmerston instructed him to 'examine with care the natural capacities of Hong Kong, and you will not agree to give up that Island unless you should find that you can exchange it for another in the neighbourhood of Canton, better adapted for the purposes in view; equally defensible; and affording sufficient shelter for Ships of War and Commerce'.<br/><br/> After Pottinger led the navy and defeated Yishan at Humen, he negotiated the terms of the Treaty of Nanking (1842), which ended the First Opium War and ceded Hong Kong Island to the United Kingdom. Pottinger became the second administrator of Hong Kong (1841–1843) and the first Governor of Hong Kong (1843–1844).<br/><br/> When he forwarded the treaty to Aberdeen, Pottinger remarked, 'the retention of Hong Kong is the only point in which I have intentionally exceeded my modified instructions, but every single hour I have passed in this superb country has convinced me of the necessity and desirability of our possessing such a settlement as an emporium for our trade and a place from which Her Majesty's subjects in China may be alike protected and controlled'.
Sheng Shicai (Wade–Giles: Sheng Shih-ts'ai) (1897–1970) was a Chinese warlord who ruled Xinjiang (Sinkiang) province from April 12, 1933 to August 29, 1944.
A proclamation board labelled 'Governor Davey's Proclamation' painted in Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) about 1830 in the time of Governor Arthur. This was designed to show former Governor Thomas Davey's desire that colonists and aboriginals be seen as equal before the law.
Ye Mingchen (simplified Chinese: 叶名琛; traditional Chinese: 葉名琛; pinyin: Yè Míngchēn; Wade–Giles: Yeh Ming-ch'en) was a high-ranking Chinese official during the Qing Dynasty, known for his resistance to British influence in Guangzhou in the aftermath of the First Opium War.<br/><br/> In 1848, Ye was appointed governor of Guangdong province, which brought him into open conflict with Britain because of his refusal to allow British traders to reside in the city of Guangzhou proper, which the British claimed they had a right to according to the Treaty of Nanking. As a matter of fact, the treaty read differently in its English and Chinese versions, the latter only permitting foreigners to reside temporarily in the harbors of the newly opened treaty ports.<br/><br/> As a reward for his ostensible success in keeping the British out of Guangzhou, he was promoted to Viceroy of Liangguang as well as imperial commissioner in 1852, which made him the chief official in charge of relations with the West. Ye Mingchen remained steadfastly opposed to yielding to British demands, but he was not able to resist the British with military force. The conflict with the British Empire came to a head in 1856, when Ye seized the Chinese-owned lorcha Arrow, which was illegally flying the British flag at the time.<br/><br/> This provided the British and French with an excuse to start the Second Opium War. During the hostilities, British forces captured Ye and brought him as a prisoner of war to Calcutta in British India where he died of fasting.
Located at the intersection of Hung Vuong Street and Chu Van An Road in Hanoi's central Ba Dinh district, Government Guesthouse is another example of the elegant French architecture that populates the city of Hanoi today. The building was formerly the Residence of the French Governor of Tonkin, which is the historical name for northern Vietnam. Today it is used as a guest house for VIP visitors of the Vietnamese government.
Kandy was the last capital of the ancient kings' era of Sri Lanka. The city lies in the middle of the island, formerly known as Ceylon, in the midst of hills in the Kandyan plateau, which crosses an area of tropical plantations, mainly tea. Kandy is one of the most scenic cities in Sri Lanka; it is both an administrative and religious city. It is the capital of the Central Province (which encompasses the districts of Kandy, Matale and Nuwara Eliya) and also of Kandy District. Kandy is the home of The Temple of the Tooth Relic (Sri Dalada Maligawa) one of the most venerable places for the Buddhist community of Sri Lanka and all around the world. UNESCO declared the temple a World Heritage Site in 1988.
Palestine (Arabic: فلسطين‎ Filasṭīn, Falasṭīn, Filisṭīn; Greek: Παλαιστίνη, Palaistinē; Latin: Palaestina; Hebrew: פלשתינה Palestina) is a n ame given to the geographic region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The region is also known as the Land of Israel (Hebrew: ארץ־ישראל Eretz-Yisra'el), the Holy Land and the Southern Levant.<br/><br/> In 1832 Palestine was conquered by Muhammad Ali's Egypt, but in 1840 Britain intervened and returned control of the Levant to the Ottomans in return for further capitulations. The end of the 19th century saw the beginning of Zionist immigration and the Revival of the Hebrew language. The movement was publicly supported by Great Britain during World War I with the Balfour Declaration of 1917. The British captured Jerusalem a month later, and were formally awarded a mandate in 1922.<br/><br/> In 1947, following World War II and the Holocaust, the British Government announced their desire to terminate the Mandate, and the United Nations General Assembly voted to partition the territory into a Jewish state and an Arab state. The Jewish leadership accepted the proposal but the Arab Higher Committee rejected it; a civil war began immediately, and the State of Israel was declared in 1948.<br/><br/> The 1948 Palestinian exodus, known in Arabic as the Nakba (Arabic: النكبة‎, an-Nakbah, 'The Catastrophe') occurred when approximately 711,000 to 725,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes, during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War during which Israel captured and incorporated a further 26% of Palestinian territory.<br/><br/> In the course of the Six Day War in June 1967, Israel captured the remainder of historic Palestine and began a continuing policy of Israeli settlement and annexation.
Originally the French governor's palace, then Norodom Palace, then Independence Palace, the magnificent original French building was knocked down to make way for Reunification Palace, which was built on the same site between 1962 -66. It is today a famous landmark in Ho Chi Minh City and a popular museum and tourist attraction. The present building was designed by architect Ngo Viet Thu and was the home and workplace of the President of South Vietnam during the US-Vietnam War. It was famously the site of the end of the Vietnam War during the Fall of Saigon on April 30, 1975, when a North Vietnamese army tank crashed through its gates and a soldier triumphantly hoisted a National Liberation Front flag on its roof.
Photograph by Ernst Haeckel, early 20th century. Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel (February 16, 1834 – August 9, 1919), also written von Haeckel, was an eminent German biologist, naturalist, philosopher, physician, professor and artist who discovered, described and named thousands of new species, mapped a genealogical tree relating all life forms, and coined many terms in biology, including anthropogeny, ecology, phylum, phylogeny, and the kingdom Protista. Haeckel promoted and popularized Charles Darwin's work in Germany.
Born in Beckenham, Kent, Auckland was the second son of William Eden, 1st Baron Auckland, and Eleanor, daughter of Sir Gilbert Elliot, 3rd Baronet. His sister was the traveller and author Emily Eden, who would visit India for long periods and write about her experiences. He was educated at Eton, and Christ Church, Oxford, and was called to the Bar, Lincoln's Inn, in 1809. He became heir apparent to the barony after his elder brother William Eden drowned in the Thames in 1810.<br/><br/> Auckland was returned to Parliament for Woodstock in 1810 (succeeding his elder brother, William), a seat he held until 1812, and again between 1813 and 1814. The latter year he succeeded his father in the barony and took his seat in the House of Lords, supporting the reform party. In 1830 he became President of the Board of Trade and Master of the Mint under Lord Grey.<br/><br/> He was First Lord of the Admiralty under Grey and then Lord Melbourne in 1834 and again under Melbourne in 1835. He gave a commission to William Hobson to sail for the East Indies, which Hobson ultimately rewarded in the naming of his new town Auckland, New Zealand in 1840. The town of Eden, New South Wales and Auckland County, New South Wales were also named after him.<br/><br/> In 1836 Lord Auckland was appointed Governor-General of India. His private secretary was John Russell Colvin, who rose to be lieutenant-governor of the North-West Provinces and named his son after him. As a legislator he dedicated himself especially to the improvement of native schools and the expansion of the commercial industry of India. He held this position at the time of British India's participation in the First Opium War (1839-1842).
In 1604-06, Middleton commanded the second expedition of the [British] East India Company to the Spice Islands, or the Moluccas, in the East Indies [Indonesia] to try to lever some influence with the locals as the Dutch East India Company had established a virtual monopoly on the lucrative trade in nutmeg, mace, cloves and pepper.<br/><br/> After a successful voyage, Middleton was knighted on his return to England. In 1610, he set off on another voyage for 'The Company', this time with instructions to call at the Red Sea ports and at Surat in western India. At the port of Al-Mukha, or Mocha, in present-day Yemen, his ships and men were seized by the Turkish governor of the region. Middleton and several sailors were imprisoned for six months until they escaped. They managed to rejoin their ships and sailed to India and ultimately, the East Indies where, exhausted, Middleton died in 1613.
Jan Pieterszoon Coen (1587—1629) was an officer of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) who held two terms as its Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies. Renowned for his administering skills, he was also a cruel and ruthless leader, remembered most for his quote: 'Despair not, spare your enemies not, for God is with us.' <br/><br/> The Dutch East India Company, or VOC, was a chartered company granted a monopoly by the Dutch government to carry out colonial activities in Asia. It was the first multinational corporation in the world and the first company to issue stock. It was also arguably the world's first megacorporation, possessing quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, imprison and execute convicts, negotiate treaties, coin money and establish colonies.<br/><br/> The VOC was set up in 1602 to gain a foothold in the East Indies (Indonesia) for the Dutch in the lucrative spice trade, which until that point was dominated by the Portuguese.<br/><br/> Between 1602 and 1796, the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade on 4,785 ships, and netted more than 2.5 million tons of Asian trade goods.
Joseph-François, Marquis Dupleix (1 January 1697 – 10 November 1763) was governor general of the French establishment in India.<br/><br/> Pondicherry was the capital of the former French territories in India. Besides Pondi itself – acquired from a local ruler in 1674 – these included Chandernagore in Bengal (1690); Mahé in Kerala (1725); Yanam in Andhra Pradesh (1731); and Karaikal in Tamil Nadu (1739). Chandernagore was returned to India three years after independence, in 1951, and was absorbed into West Bengal. Returned to India in 1956, the remaining four territories were constituted as the Union Territory of Pondicherry in 1962.<br/><br/> Today Karaikal, Yanam and Mahé are all small seaside resort towns, known chiefly for their cheap beer made possible by Pondicherry's light alcohol taxes. Karaikal, on the Coromandel Coast 100 kilometres south of Pondicherry, is similar to rural Pondi – a prosperous, Tamil-speaking enclave renowned for the abundance of its rice harvests. Yanam, located on the coast of Andhra Pradesh more than 600 kilometres north of Madras, is a tiny, Telugu-speaking town on a branch of the Godavari River. Mahé, on the Malabar Coast of northern Kerala is a quaint, picturesque town, named for its founder, Count Mahé de La Bourdonnais.<br/><br/> In September 2006, the territory changed its official name from Pondicherry to the vernacular original, Puducherry, which means 'New village'.
Joseph-François, Marquis Dupleix (1 January 1697 – 10 November 1763) was governor general of the French establishment in India.<br/><br/> Pondicherry was the capital of the former French territories in India. Besides Pondi itself – acquired from a local ruler in 1674 – these included Chandernagore in Bengal (1690); Mahé in Kerala (1725); Yanam in Andhra Pradesh (1731); and Karaikal in Tamil Nadu (1739). Chandernagore was returned to India three years after independence, in 1951, and was absorbed into West Bengal. Returned to India in 1956, the remaining four territories were constituted as the Union Territory of Pondicherry in 1962.<br/><br/> Today Karaikal, Yanam and Mahé are all small seaside resort towns, known chiefly for their cheap beer made possible by Pondicherry's light alcohol taxes. Karaikal, on the Coromandel Coast 100 kilometres south of Pondicherry, is similar to rural Pondi – a prosperous, Tamil-speaking enclave renowned for the abundance of its rice harvests. Yanam, located on the coast of Andhra Pradesh more than 600 kilometres north of Madras, is a tiny, Telugu-speaking town on a branch of the Godavari River. Mahé, on the Malabar Coast of northern Kerala is a quaint, picturesque town, named for its founder, Count Mahé de La Bourdonnais.<br/><br/> In September 2006, the territory changed its official name from Pondicherry to the vernacular original, Puducherry, which means 'New village'.
Dipterocarpus alatus (Thai: ยางนา, Khmer chhë tiël ba:y, chhë tiël tük, chhë tiël thom or chheuteal, Vietnamese Dau nuoc (Dau rai)) is a tropical forest tree, of dense evergreen or mixed dense forests, common in Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. This species is also been found in the Philippines. It often occurs gregariously along river banks and is a key planting species for regenerating deforested land around the Dong Nai river and Cat Tien National Park. This tree is an endangered species in its natural habitat.
Filipe de Brito e Nicote or Nga Zinga (d. April 1613) was a Portuguese adventurer and mercenary in Rakhine (Arakanese) service.<br/><br/> Born to a French father in Lisbon, Portugal, de Brito first travelled to Southeast Asia as a cabin boy. He eventually served under the King of Arakan, and became governor of Thanlyin (Syriam) in 1599. Returning to Goa the next year to gain official recognition, he returned in 1602 and was appointed 'Commander of Syriam' and 'King of Pegu' by the Portuguese royal court.<br/><br/> In 1613, de Brito's Thanlyin was besieged by the Burmese forces of King Anaukpetlun. After the fall of the city in April 1613, de Brito was executed by impalement. His friend and ally, Burmese Toungoo prince Natshinnaung was converted to Roman Catholicism and was baptised by a priest from Goa. Being the rebellious ruler of Toungoo, Natshinnaung was also executed in 1613 with de Brito.
Originally the French governor's palace, then Norodom Palace, then Independence Palace, the magnificent original French building was knocked down to make way for Reunification Palace, which was built on the same site between 1962 -66. It is today a famous landmark in Ho Chi Minh City and a popular museum and tourist attraction. The present building was designed by architect Ngo Viet Thu and was the home and workplace of the President of South Vietnam during the US-Vietnam War. It was famously the site of the end of the Vietnam War during the Fall of Saigon on April 30, 1975, when a North Vietnamese army tank crashed through its gates and a soldier triumphantly hoisted a National Liberation Front flag on its roof.
Sheng Shicai (Wade–Giles: Sheng Shih-ts'ai) (1897–1970) was a Chinese warlord who ruled Xinjiang (Sinkiang) province from April 12, 1933 to August 29, 1944.<br/><br/> The Ma clique is a collective name for a group of Hui (Muslim Chinese) warlords in northwestern China who ruled the Chinese provinces of Qinghai, Gansu and Ningxia from the 1910s until 1949.<br/><br/> There were three families in the Ma clique (‘Ma’ being a common Hui rendering of the common Muslim name, Muhammad), each of them controlling one area respectively. The three most prominent members of the clique were Ma Bufang, Ma Hongkui and Ma Hongbin, collectively known as the 'Xibei San Ma', (The Three Ma of the Northwest).<br/><br/> Some contemporary accounts, such as Edgar Snow's, described the clique as the ‘Four Ma’, adding Ma Bufang's brother Ma Buqing to the list of the top warlords.
Zuo Zongtang (November 10, 1812 - September 5, 1885), spelled Tso Tsung-t'ang in Wade-Giles was a Chinese statesman and military leader of the late Qing Dynasty. He was born in Wenjialong, north of Changsha in Hunan province. He served in China's northwestern regions, quelling the Dungan revolt and various other disturbances.<br/><br/> He served with distinction during the Qing Empire's civil war against the Taiping Rebellion, in which it is estimated 20 million people died. After this military success, he marched west with his 120,000 strong army, winning many victories against the rebellious Muslims of Northwestern China including today's Shaanxi, Ningxia, Gansu and Qinghai provinces and Xinjiang in the 1870s.<br/><br/> In 1878, he successfully suppressed Yakub Beg's uprising in Xinjiang and helped to negotiate an end to Russian occupation of the border city of Ili. He was vocal in the debate at the Qing Imperial court over what to do with the Xinjiang situation, advocating for Xinjiang to become a province.
Yang Zengxin (1859—7 July 1928), born in Mengzi, Honghe, Yunnan in 1859. He was the ruler of Xinjiang after the Xinhai Revolution in 1911 until his assassination in 1928.
Chin Shu-jen (1879–1941), or Jin Shuren , was governor of Xinjiang, succeeding Yang Zengxin after Yang was assassinated in 1928. Jin ruled Xinjiang for about half a decade, but his reign was characterized by corruption and suppression. Under his rule, both ethnic and religion conflicts were greatly deepened, resulting in numerous riots against his regime, which eventually led to his downfall.
The Aceh War, also known as the Dutch War or the Infidel War (1873–1914), was an armed military conflict between the Sultanate of Aceh and the Netherlands which was triggered by discussions between representatives of Aceh and the United Kingdom in Singapore during early 1873.<br/><br/> The war was part of a series of conflicts in the late 19th century that consolidated Dutch rule over modern-day Indonesia.
The Aceh War, also known as the Dutch War or the Infidel War (1873–1914), was an armed military conflict between the Sultanate of Aceh and the Netherlands which was triggered by discussions between representatives of Aceh and the United Kingdom in Singapore during early 1873.<br/><br/> The war was part of a series of conflicts in the late 19th century that consolidated Dutch rule over modern-day Indonesia.
Khaw Sim Bee, also known as Phraya Ratsadanupradit Mahison Phakdi, was governor of Phuket from 1902 until his death in 1916. He is believed to have been the first man to introduce the rubber tree to Thailand.<br/><br/> Phuket, formerly known as Talang and, in Western sources, Junk Ceylon (a corruption of the Malay Tanjung Salang, i.e. 'Cape Salang'), is one of the southern provinces (changwat) of Thailand. Neighbouring provinces are (from north clockwise) Phang Nga and Krabi, but as Phuket is an island there are no land boundaries.<br/><br/> Phuket, which is approximately the size of Singapore, is Thailand’s largest island. The island is connected to mainland Thailand by two bridges. It is situated off the west coast of Thailand in the Andaman Sea.<br/><br/> Phuket formerly derived its wealth from tin and rubber, and enjoyed a rich and colorful history. The island was on one of the major trading routes between India and China, and was frequently mentioned in foreign ship logs of Portuguese, French, Dutch and English traders. The region now derives much of its income from tourism.
Khaw Sim Bee, also known as Phraya Ratsadanupradit Mahison Phakdi, was governor of Phuket from 1902 until his death in 1916. He is believed to have been the first man to introduce the rubber tree to Thailand.<br/><br/> Phuket, formerly known as Talang and, in Western sources, Junk Ceylon (a corruption of the Malay Tanjung Salang, i.e. 'Cape Salang'), is one of the southern provinces (changwat) of Thailand. Neighbouring provinces are (from north clockwise) Phang Nga and Krabi, but as Phuket is an island there are no land boundaries.<br/><br/> Phuket, which is approximately the size of Singapore, is Thailand’s largest island. The island is connected to mainland Thailand by two bridges. It is situated off the west coast of Thailand in the Andaman Sea.<br/><br/> Phuket formerly derived its wealth from tin and rubber, and enjoyed a rich and colorful history. The island was on one of the major trading routes between India and China, and was frequently mentioned in foreign ship logs of Portuguese, French, Dutch and English traders. The region now derives much of its income from tourism.
Khaw Sim Bee, also known as Phraya Ratsadanupradit Mahison Phakdi, was governor of Phuket from 1902 until his death in 1916. He is believed to have been the first man to introduce the rubber tree to Thailand.<br/><br/> Phuket, formerly known as Talang and, in Western sources, Junk Ceylon (a corruption of the Malay Tanjung Salang, i.e. 'Cape Salang'), is one of the southern provinces (changwat) of Thailand. Neighbouring provinces are (from north clockwise) Phang Nga and Krabi, but as Phuket is an island there are no land boundaries.<br/><br/> Phuket, which is approximately the size of Singapore, is Thailand’s largest island. The island is connected to mainland Thailand by two bridges. It is situated off the west coast of Thailand in the Andaman Sea.<br/><br/> Phuket formerly derived its wealth from tin and rubber, and enjoyed a rich and colorful history. The island was on one of the major trading routes between India and China, and was frequently mentioned in foreign ship logs of Portuguese, French, Dutch and English traders. The region now derives much of its income from tourism.
Khaw Sim Bee, also known as Phraya Ratsadanupradit Mahison Phakdi, was governor of Phuket from 1902 until his death in 1916. He is believed to have been the first man to introduce the rubber tree to Thailand.<br/><br/> Phuket, formerly known as Talang and, in Western sources, Junk Ceylon (a corruption of the Malay Tanjung Salang, i.e. 'Cape Salang'), is one of the southern provinces (changwat) of Thailand. Neighbouring provinces are (from north clockwise) Phang Nga and Krabi, but as Phuket is an island there are no land boundaries.<br/><br/> Phuket, which is approximately the size of Singapore, is Thailand’s largest island. The island is connected to mainland Thailand by two bridges. It is situated off the west coast of Thailand in the Andaman Sea.<br/><br/> Phuket formerly derived its wealth from tin and rubber, and enjoyed a rich and colorful history. The island was on one of the major trading routes between India and China, and was frequently mentioned in foreign ship logs of Portuguese, French, Dutch and English traders. The region now derives much of its income from tourism.
On February 21, 1891 Lord Lansdowne, the British Viceroy of India, ordered J.W. Quinton, the chief commissioner of Assam, to recognise Kullachandra as the King of Manipur and to arrest Jubaraj Tikendrajit. This marked the beginning of the Anglo-Manipur War of 1891.<br/><br/> The Anglo-Manipur war (1891) saw the conquest of Manipur by British Indian forces and the incorporation of the small Assamese kingdom within the British Raj.<br/><br/> Subsequently Manipur became a Princely State under British tutelage.
Count Hasegawa Yoshimichi (1 October 1850 – 27 January 1924) was a field marshal in the Imperial Japanese Army and Japanese Governor General of Korea from 1916-1919. His Japanese decorations included Order of the Golden Kite (1st class) and Order of the Chrysanthemum.