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Franz Joseph I or Francis Joseph I (German: Franz Joseph I., Hungarian: I. Ferenc Jozsef, Croatian: Franjo Josip I, Czech: Frantisek Josef I, Italian: Francesco Giuseppe; 18 August 1830 – 21 November 1916) was Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia from 2 December 1848 until his death on 21 November 1916.<br/><br/> From 1 May 1850 to 24 August 1866 he was also President of the German Confederation. He was the longest-reigning Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, as well as the third longest-reigning monarch of any country in European history, after Louis XIV of France and Johann II of Liechtenstein.
Franz Joseph I or Francis Joseph I (German: Franz Joseph I., Hungarian: I. Ferenc Jozsef, Croatian: Franjo Josip I, Czech: Frantisek Josef I, Italian: Francesco Giuseppe; 18 August 1830 – 21 November 1916) was Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia from 2 December 1848 until his death on 21 November 1916.<br/><br/> From 1 May 1850 to 24 August 1866 he was also President of the German Confederation. He was the longest-reigning Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, as well as the third longest-reigning monarch of any country in European history, after Louis XIV of France and Johann II of Liechtenstein.
Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: 'Court Performance and Festive Parade in Honour of the Wedding of Emperor Leopold I with Margaret Theresa of Spain in December 1666', illustration by Francesco Sbarra (1611-1668), c. 1667, Florence. Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: Copper engraving of Leopold I (1640-1705), 37th Holy Roman emperor, by Nicolas II de Larmessin (1632-1694), c. 1690. Leopold I was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: Portrait medallions of Leopold I (1640-1705), 37th Holy Roman emperor, his wife Eleonore Magdalene and his son King Joseph I, over a view of Augsburg. Copper engraving, c. 1689. Leopold I was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: 'Entry of Emperor Leopold I, his Wife Eleonore Magdalene and King Joseph I to the Augsburg Cathedral', copper engraving, c. 1689. Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: 'Emperor Leopold's Wedding with Claudia Felicitas of Austria, Graz, 15 October 1673', copper engraving by Cornelis Meyssens and Johann Martin Lerch (1643-1693), c. 1673. Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Germany: 'Emperor Leopold's Wedding with Margaret Theresa of Spain, 1666/1667', copper engraving, c. 1660s. Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Leopold I (1640-1705) was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III, and became heir apparent after the death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658 after his father's death, and by then had also already become Archduke of Austria and claimed the crowns of Germany, Croatia, Bohemia and Hungary.
Ferdinand III (1608-1657) was the eldest son of Emperor Ferdinand II. He became Archduke of Austria in 1621, King of Hungary in 1625 and King of Bohemia in 1627. Ferdinand was appointed head of the Imperial Army in 1634 during the Thirty Years' War, and was vital in the negotiation of the Peace of Prague in 1635, the same year he was elected King of Germany. When his father died in 1637, he succeeded him as Holy Roman Emperor.<br/><br/> As emperor, Ferdinand wished for peace with France and Sweden, but the war would drag on for another 11 years, finally ending with the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Composing of the Treaty of Munster with France and the Treaty of Osnabruck with Sweden, the Peace of Westphalia represented a major shift in the concept of sovereign nation-states and European power, especially in terms of national self-determination and non-interference. Ferdinand himself had in 1644 given the right for all rulers of German states to conduct their own foreign policy, which backfired on him and would contribute to the erosion of imperial authority in the Holy Roman Empire.<br/><br/> After the Peace of Westphalia, Ferdinand was busy enforcing and carrying out the terms of the treaty as well as getting rid of foreign soldiery from German lands. He soon reneged on the terms of the treaty by interfering in Italy in 1656, sending an army to assist Spain against France. As he was concluding an alliance with Poland to check Swedish aggression, Ferdinand died in 1657.
Ferdinand III (1608-1657) was the eldest son of Emperor Ferdinand II. He became Archduke of Austria in 1621, King of Hungary in 1625 and King of Bohemia in 1627. Ferdinand was appointed head of the Imperial Army in 1634 during the Thirty Years' War, and was vital in the negotiation of the Peace of Prague in 1635, the same year he was elected King of Germany. When his father died in 1637, he succeeded him as Holy Roman Emperor.<br/><br/> As emperor, Ferdinand wished for peace with France and Sweden, but the war would drag on for another 11 years, finally ending with the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Composing of the Treaty of Munster with France and the Treaty of Osnabruck with Sweden, the Peace of Westphalia represented a major shift in the concept of sovereign nation-states and European power, especially in terms of national self-determination and non-interference. Ferdinand himself had in 1644 given the right for all rulers of German states to conduct their own foreign policy, which backfired on him and would contribute to the erosion of imperial authority in the Holy Roman Empire.<br/><br/> After the Peace of Westphalia, Ferdinand was busy enforcing and carrying out the terms of the treaty as well as getting rid of foreign soldiery from German lands. He soon reneged on the terms of the treaty by interfering in Italy in 1656, sending an army to assist Spain against France. As he was concluding an alliance with Poland to check Swedish aggression, Ferdinand died in 1657.
Copper engraving of Ferdinand II (1578-1637), 35th Holy Roman emperor, by Matthaus Merian the Elder (1593-1650), c. 1642.<br/><br/> Ferdinand II (1578-1637) was the son of Charles II, Archduke of Austria, and grandson of Emperor Ferdinand I. Ferdinand was part of a Catholic faction opposed to his cousin, Emperor Matthias, who was more tolerant to Protestantism. He became King of Bohemia in 1617, King of Hungary in 1618, and ascended to Holy Roman Emperor in 1619 after his cousin's death.
Ferdinand II (1578-1637) was the son of Charles II, Archduke of Austria, and grandson of Emperor Ferdinand I. Ferdinand was part of a Catholic faction opposed to his cousin, Emperor Matthias, who was more tolerant to Protestantism. He became King of Bohemia in 1617, King of Hungary in 1618, and ascended to Holy Roman Emperor in 1619 after his cousin's death.<br/><br/> Ferdinand was a zealous Catholic and immediately worked to restore Catholicism as the only religion in the Holy Roman Empire, suppressing Protestantism wherever he could, leading to conflict with his non-Catholic subjects. He discarded the Letter of Majesty signed by the previous emperor, Rudolf II, which granted freedom of religion to the nobles and inhabitants of Bohemia. His absolutist policies and infringement on noble historical privileges led to the Bohemian Revolt. His actions during the Second Defenestration of Prague in 1618 were considered the first steps of the Thirty Years' War.<br/><br/> The Thirty Years' War raged across much of Central Europe, drawing in more and more factions, fighting either on the Catholic or Protestant side. It became one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, as well as being the deadliest European religious war, with more than eight million casualties. Ferdinand himself died in 1637, before the war ended, leaving his son Ferdinand III to deal with the war and try to manage an empire engulfed in chaos.
Ferdinand II (1578-1637) was the son of Charles II, Archduke of Austria, and grandson of Emperor Ferdinand I. Ferdinand was part of a Catholic faction opposed to his cousin, Emperor Matthias, who was more tolerant to Protestantism. He became King of Bohemia in 1617, King of Hungary in 1618, and ascended to Holy Roman Emperor in 1619 after his cousin's death.<br/><br/> Ferdinand was a zealous Catholic and immediately worked to restore Catholicism as the only religion in the Holy Roman Empire, suppressing Protestantism wherever he could, leading to conflict with his non-Catholic subjects. He discarded the Letter of Majesty signed by the previous emperor, Rudolf II, which granted freedom of religion to the nobles and inhabitants of Bohemia. His absolutist policies and infringement on noble historical privileges led to the Bohemian Revolt. His actions during the Second Defenestration of Prague in 1618 were considered the first steps of the Thirty Years' War.<br/><br/> The Thirty Years' War raged across much of Central Europe, drawing in more and more factions, fighting either on the Catholic or Protestant side. It became one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, as well as being the deadliest European religious war, with more than eight million casualties. Ferdinand himself died in 1637, before the war ended, leaving his son Ferdinand III to deal with the war and try to manage an empire engulfed in chaos.
Ferdinand II (1578-1637) was the son of Charles II, Archduke of Austria, and grandson of Emperor Ferdinand I. Ferdinand was part of a Catholic faction opposed to his cousin, Emperor Matthias, who was more tolerant to Protestantism. He became King of Bohemia in 1617, King of Hungary in 1618, and ascended to Holy Roman Emperor in 1619 after his cousin's death.<br/><br/> Ferdinand was a zealous Catholic and immediately worked to restore Catholicism as the only religion in the Holy Roman Empire, suppressing Protestantism wherever he could, leading to conflict with his non-Catholic subjects. He discarded the Letter of Majesty signed by the previous emperor, Rudolf II, which granted freedom of religion to the nobles and inhabitants of Bohemia. His absolutist policies and infringement on noble historical privileges led to the Bohemian Revolt. His actions during the Second Defenestration of Prague in 1618 were considered the first steps of the Thirty Years' War.<br/><br/> The Thirty Years' War raged across much of Central Europe, drawing in more and more factions, fighting either on the Catholic or Protestant side. It became one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, as well as being the deadliest European religious war, with more than eight million casualties. Ferdinand himself died in 1637, before the war ended, leaving his son Ferdinand III to deal with the war and try to manage an empire engulfed in chaos.
Matthias (1557-1619) was the son of Emperor Maximilian II and younger brother of Emperor Rudolf II. He married his cousin, Archduchess Anna of Austria, becoming successor to his uncle, Archduke Ferdinand II. He was invited to the Netherlands by the rebellious provinces and offered the position of Governor-General in 1578, which he accepted despite the protestations of his uncle, King Philip II of Spain.<br/><br/> Matthias helped to set down the rules for religious peace and freedom of religion, and only returned home in 1581 after the Netherlands deposed Philip II to become fully independent. He became governor of Austria in 1593 by his brother Rudolf's appointment. He forced his brother to allow him to negotiate with the Hungarian revolts of 1605, resulting in the Peace of Vienna in 1606. He then forced his brother to yield to him the crowns of Hungary, Austria and Moravia in 1608, and then making him cede the Bohemian throne in 1611. By then Matthias had imprisoned his brother, where he remained till his death in 1612.<br/><br/> After Rudolf's death, Matthias ascended to Holy Roman emperor, and had to juggle between appeasing both the Catholic and Protestant states within the Holy Roman Empire, hoping to reach a compromise and strengthen the empire. The Bohemian Protestant revolt of 1618 provoked his strongly Catholic brother Maximilian III to imprison Matthias' advisors and take control of the empire, Matthias being too old and ailing to stop him. Matthias died a year later in 1619.
Matthias (1557-1619) was the son of Emperor Maximilian II and younger brother of Emperor Rudolf II. He married his cousin, Archduchess Anna of Austria, becoming successor to his uncle, Archduke Ferdinand II. He was invited to the Netherlands by the rebellious provinces and offered the position of Governor-General in 1578, which he accepted despite the protestations of his uncle, King Philip II of Spain.<br/><br/> Matthias helped to set down the rules for religious peace and freedom of religion, and only returned home in 1581 after the Netherlands deposed Philip II to become fully independent. He became governor of Austria in 1593 by his brother Rudolf's appointment. He forced his brother to allow him to negotiate with the Hungarian revolts of 1605, resulting in the Peace of Vienna in 1606. He then forced his brother to yield to him the crowns of Hungary, Austria and Moravia in 1608, and then making him cede him the Bohemian throne in 1611. By then Matthias had imprisoned his brother, where he remained till his death in 1612.<br/><br/> After Rudolf's death, Matthias ascended to Holy Roman emperor, and had to juggle between appeasing both the Catholic and Protestant states within the Holy Roman Empire, hoping to reach a compromise and strengthen the empire. The Bohemian Protestant revolt of 1618 provoked his strongly Catholic brother Maximilian III to imprison Matthias' advisors and take control of the empire, Matthias being too old and ailing to stop him. Matthias died a year later in 1619.
Matthias (1557-1619) was the son of Emperor Maximilian II and younger brother of Emperor Rudolf II. He married his cousin, Archduchess Anna of Austria, becoming successor to his uncle, Archduke Ferdinand II. He was invited to the Netherlands by the rebellious provinces and offered the position of Governor-General in 1578, which he accepted despite the protestations of his uncle, King Philip II of Spain.<br/><br/> Matthias helped to set down the rules for religious peace and freedom of religion, and only returned home in 1581 after the Netherlands deposed Philip II to become fully independent. He became governor of Austria in 1593 by his brother Rudolf's appointment. He forced his brother to allow him to negotiate with the Hungarian revolts of 1605, resulting in the Peace of Vienna in 1606. He then forced his brother to yield to him the crowns of Hungary, Austria and Moravia in 1608, and then making him cede the Bohemian throne in 1611. By then Matthias had imprisoned his brother, where he remained till his death in 1612.<br/><br/> After Rudolf's death, Matthias ascended to Holy Roman emperor, and had to juggle between appeasing both the Catholic and Protestant states within the Holy Roman Empire, hoping to reach a compromise and strengthen the empire. The Bohemian Protestant revolt of 1618 provoked his strongly Catholic brother Maximilian III to imprison Matthias' advisors and take control of the empire, Matthias being too old and ailing to stop him. Matthias died a year later in 1619.
Matthias (1557-1619) was the son of Emperor Maximilian II and younger brother of Emperor Rudolf II. He married his cousin, Archduchess Anna of Austria, becoming successor to his uncle, Archduke Ferdinand II. He was invited to the Netherlands by the rebellious provinces and offered the position of Governor-General in 1578, which he accepted despite the protestations of his uncle, King Philip II of Spain.<br/><br/> Matthias helped to set down the rules for religious peace and freedom of religion, and only returned home in 1581 after the Netherlands deposed Philip II to become fully independent. He became governor of Austria in 1593 by his brother Rudolf's appointment. He forced his brother to allow him to negotiate with the Hungarian revolts of 1605, resulting in the Peace of Vienna in 1606. He then forced his brother to yield to him the crowns of Hungary, Austria and Moravia in 1608, and then making him cede the Bohemian throne in 1611. By then Matthias had imprisoned his brother, where he remained till his death in 1612.<br/><br/> After Rudolf's death, Matthias ascended to Holy Roman emperor, and had to juggle between appeasing both the Catholic and Protestant states within the Holy Roman Empire, hoping to reach a compromise and strengthen the empire. The Bohemian Protestant revolt of 1618 provoked his strongly Catholic brother Maximilian III to imprison Matthias' advisors and take control of the empire, Matthias being too old and ailing to stop him. Matthias died a year later in 1619.
Matthias (1557-1619) was the son of Emperor Maximilian II and younger brother of Emperor Rudolf II. He married his cousin, Archduchess Anna of Austria, becoming successor to his uncle, Archduke Ferdinand II. He was invited to the Netherlands by the rebellious provinces and offered the position of Governor-General in 1578, which he accepted despite the protestations of his uncle, King Philip II of Spain.<br/><br/> Matthias helped to set down the rules for religious peace and freedom of religion, and only returned home in 1581 after the Netherlands deposed Philip II to become fully independent. He became governor of Austria in 1593 by his brother Rudolf's appointment. He forced his brother to allow him to negotiate with the Hungarian revolts of 1605, resulting in the Peace of Vienna in 1606. He then forced his brother to yield to him the crowns of Hungary, Austria and Moravia in 1608, and then making him cede the Bohemian throne in 1611. By then Matthias had imprisoned his brother, where he remained till his death in 1612.<br/><br/> After Rudolf's death, Matthias ascended to Holy Roman emperor, and had to juggle between appeasing both the Catholic and Protestant states within the Holy Roman Empire, hoping to reach a compromise and strengthen the empire. The Bohemian Protestant revolt of 1618 provoked his strongly Catholic brother Maximilian III to imprison Matthias' advisors and take control of the empire, Matthias being too old and ailing to stop him. Matthias died a year later in 1619.
Rudolf II (1552-1612) was the eldest son and successor of Emperor Maximilian II, and spent eight formative years in the Spanish court of his maternal uncle Philip II, adopting a stiff and aloof manner typical of the more conservative Spanish nobility. He remained reserved and secretive for the rest of his life, less inclined to daily affairs of state and more interested in occult studies such as alchemy and astrology.<br/><br/> Rudolf became King of Hungary and Croatia in 1572, and by the time of his father's death in 1576, had also inherited the Bohemian, German and Holy Roman crowns. Rudolf dangled himself as a marital prize in various diplomatic negotiations, but like his contemporary, Queen Elizabeth I of England, he ultimately never married. Rudolf did have a succession of affairs with various women however, resulting in several illegitimate children. He was also religiously neutral, tolerant to Protestantism and other religions despite being raised in a Catholic court.<br/><br/> Rudolf's conflict with the Ottoman Empire would be his undoing. He started a long and indecisive war with the Ottomans in 1593 that lasted till 1606 and was known as The Long War. His Hungarian subjects revolted in 1604, tired from the fighting, and he was forced to cede the Hungarian crown to his younger brother, Archduke Matthias. Bohemian Protestants also pressed for greater religious liberty, and when Rudolf attempted to use his army to repress them in 1609, Matthias imprisoned Rudolf and forced him to cede the Bohemian crown as well. Rudolf died in 1612, having been stripped of all effective power aside from the empty title of Holy Roman Emperor.
Maximilian II (1527-1576) was the son of Emperor Ferdinand I. He served during the Italian Wars in 1544, as well as the Schmalkadic War. His uncle, Emperor Charles V, made him marry his cousin and Charles' daughter Mary of Spain in 1548, and Maximilian acted temporarily as the emperor's representative in Spain. Questions of succession soon saw trouble brew between the German and Spanish branches of the Habsburg dynasty, and it was suspected that Maximilian was poisoned in 1552 by those in league with his cousin and brother-in-law, Philip II.<br/><br/> The relationship between Maximilian and his cousin Philip soon became uneasy, with Philip being a Spaniard born and raised, while Maximilian idenitifed himself as the quintessential German prince: outgoing, charismatic and religiously tolerant. He governed the Austrian hereditary lands alongside his father, defending them against Ottoman incursions. He was chosen and crowned as King of Germany in 1562 after assuring the Catholic electors of his faith, and was crowned a year later as King of Hungary. By the time his father died in 1564, Maximilian had inherited the crowns of Croatia, Bohemia and of the Holy Roman emperor.<br/><br/> Maximilian's rule was marred by the ongoing Ottoman-Habsburg wars as well as deteriorating relations with his Habsburg cousins in the Spanish Empire. By the time of his death in 1576, he had not succeeded in achieving his three major goals: rationalising the governmental structure, unifying Christianity and evicting the Ottomans from Hungary. He refused to receive the last sacraments of the Church while on his deathbed.
Maximilian II (1527-1576) was the son of Emperor Ferdinand I. He served during the Italian Wars in 1544, as well as the Schmalkadic War. His uncle, Emperor Charles V, made him marry his cousin and Charles' daughter Mary of Spain in 1548, and Maximilian acted temporarily as the emperor's representative in Spain. Questions of succession soon saw trouble brew between the German and Spanish branches of the Habsburg dynasty, and it was suspected that Maximilian was poisoned in 1552 by those in league with his cousin and brother-in-law, Philip II.<br/><br/> The relationship between Maximilian and his cousin Philip soon became uneasy, with Philip being a Spaniard born and raised, while Maximilian idenitifed himself as the quintessential German prince: outgoing, charismatic and religiously tolerant. He governed the Austrian hereditary lands alongside his father, defending them against Ottoman incursions. He was chosen and crowned as King of Germany in 1562 after assuring the Catholic electors of his faith, and was crowned a year later as King of Hungary. By the time his father died in 1564, Maximilian had inherited the crowns of Croatia, Bohemia and of the Holy Roman emperor.<br/><br/> Maximilian's rule was marred by the ongoing Ottoman-Habsburg wars as well as deteriorating relations with his Habsburg cousins in the Spanish Empire. By the time of his death in 1576, he had not succeeded in achieving his three major goals: rationalising the governmental structure, unifying Christianity and evicting the Ottomans from Hungary. He refused to receive the last sacraments of the Church while on his deathbed.
Ferdinand III (1608-1657) was the eldest son of Emperor Ferdinand II. He became Archduke of Austria in 1621, King of Hungary in 1625 and King of Bohemia in 1627. Ferdinand was appointed head of the Imperial Army in 1634 during the Thirty Years' War, and was vital in the negotiation of the Peace of Prague in 1635, the same year he was elected King of Germany. When his father died in 1637, he succeeded him as Holy Roman Emperor.<br/><br/> As emperor, Ferdinand wished for peace with France and Sweden, but the war would drag on for another 11 years, finally ending with the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Composing of the Treaty of Munster with France and the Treaty of Osnabruck with Sweden, the Peace of Westphalia represented a major shift in the concept of sovereign nation-states and European power, especially in terms of national self-determination and non-interference. Ferdinand himself had in 1644 given the right for all rulers of German states to conduct their own foreign policy, which backfired on him and would contribute to the erosion of imperial authority in the Holy Roman Empire.<br/><br/> After the Peace of Westphalia, Ferdinand was busy enforcing and carrying out the terms of the treaty as well as getting rid of foreign soldiery from German lands. He soon reneged on the terms of the treaty by interfering in Italy in 1656, sending an army to assist Spain against France. As he was concluding an alliance with Poland to check Swedish aggression, Ferdinand died in 1657.
Ferdinand II (1578-1637) was the son of Charles II, Archduke of Austria, and grandson of Emperor Ferdinand I. Ferdinand was part of a Catholic faction opposed to his cousin, Emperor Matthias, who was more tolerant to Protestantism. He became King of Bohemia in 1617, King of Hungary in 1618, and ascended to Holy Roman Emperor in 1619 after his cousin's death.<br/><br/> Ferdinand was a zealous Catholic and immediately worked to restore Catholicism as the only religion in the Holy Roman Empire, suppressing Protestantism wherever he could, leading to conflict with his non-Catholic subjects. He discarded the Letter of Majesty signed by the previous emperor, Rudolf II, which granted freedom of religion to the nobles and inhabitants of Bohemia. His absolutist policies and infringement on noble historical privileges led to the Bohemian Revolt. His actions during the Second Defenestration of Prague in 1618 were considered the first steps of the Thirty Years' War.<br/><br/> The Thirty Years' War raged across much of Central Europe, drawing in more and more factions, fighting either on the Catholic or Protestant side. It became one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, as well as being the deadliest European religious war, with more than eight million casualties. Ferdinand himself died in 1637, before the war ended, leaving his son Ferdinand III to deal with the war and try to manage an empire engulfed in chaos.
Matthias (1557-1619) was the son of Emperor Maximilian II and younger brother of Emperor Rudolf II. He married his cousin, Archduchess Anna of Austria, becoming successor to his uncle, Archduke Ferdinand II. He was invited to the Netherlands by the rebellious provinces and offered the position of Governor-General in 1578, which he accepted despite the protestations of his uncle, King Philip II of Spain.<br/><br/> Matthias helped to set down the rules for religious peace and freedom of religion, and only returned home in 1581 after the Netherlands deposed Philip II to become fully independent. He became governor of Austria in 1593 by his brother Rudolf's appointment. He forced his brother to allow him to negotiate with the Hungarian revolts of 1605, resulting in the Peace of Vienna in 1606. He then forced his brother to yield to him the crowns of Hungary, Austria and Moravia in 1608, and then making him cede the Bohemian throne in 1611. By then Matthias had imprisoned his brother, where he remained till his death in 1612.<br/><br/> After Rudolf's death, Matthias ascended to Holy Roman emperor, and had to juggle between appeasing both the Catholic and Protestant states within the Holy Roman Empire, hoping to reach a compromise and strengthen the empire. The Bohemian Protestant revolt of 1618 provoked his strongly Catholic brother Maximilian III to imprison Matthias' advisors and take control of the empire, Matthias being too old and ailing to stop him. Matthias died a year later in 1619.
Rudolf II (1552-1612) was the eldest son and successor of Emperor Maximilian II, and spent eight formative years in the Spanish court of his maternal uncle Philip II, adopting a stiff and aloof manner typical of the more conservative Spanish nobility. He remained reserved and secretive for the rest of his life, less inclined to daily affairs of state and more interested in occult studies such as alchemy and astrology.<br/><br/> Rudolf became King of Hungary and Croatia in 1572, and by the time of his father's death in 1576, had also inherited the Bohemian, German and Holy Roman crowns. Rudolf dangled himself as a marital prize in various diplomatic negotiations, but like his contemporary, Queen Elizabeth I of England, he ultimately never married. Rudolf did have a succession of affairs with various women however, resulting in several illegitimate children. He was also religiously neutral, tolerant to Protestantism and other religions despite being raised in a Catholic court.<br/><br/> Rudolf's conflict with the Ottoman Empire would be his undoing. He started a long and indecisive war with the Ottomans in 1593 that lasted till 1606 and was known as The Long War. His Hungarian subjects revolted in 1604, tired from the fighting, and he was forced to cede the Hungarian crown to his younger brother, Archduke Matthias. Bohemian Protestants also pressed for greater religious liberty, and when Rudolf attempted to use his army to repress them in 1609, Matthias imprisoned Rudolf and forced him to cede the Bohemian crown as well. Rudolf died in 1612, having been stripped of all effective power aside from the empty title of Holy Roman Emperor.
Maximilian II (1527-1576) was the son of Emperor Ferdinand I. He served during the Italian Wars in 1544, as well as the Schmalkadic War. His uncle, Emperor Charles V, made him marry his cousin and Charles' daughter Mary of Spain in 1548, and Maximilian acted temporarily as the emperor's representative in Spain. Questions of succession soon saw trouble brew between the German and Spanish branches of the Habsburg dynasty, and it was suspected that Maximilian was poisoned in 1552 by those in league with his cousin and brother-in-law, Philip II.<br/><br/> The relationship between Maximilian and his cousin Philip soon became uneasy, with Philip being a Spaniard born and raised, while Maximilian idenitifed himself as the quintessential German prince: outgoing, charismatic and religiously tolerant. He governed the Austrian hereditary lands alongside his father, defending them against Ottoman incursions. He was chosen and crowned as King of Germany in 1562 after assuring the Catholic electors of his faith, and was crowned a year later as King of Hungary. By the time his father died in 1564, Maximilian had inherited the crowns of Croatia, Bohemia and of the Holy Roman emperor.<br/><br/> Maximilian's rule was marred by the ongoing Ottoman-Habsburg wars as well as deteriorating relations with his Habsburg cousins in the Spanish Empire. By the time of his death in 1576, he had not succeeded in achieving his three major goals: rationalising the governmental structure, unifying Christianity and evicting the Ottomans from Hungary. He refused to receive the last sacraments of the Church while on his deathbed.
Maximilian II (1527-1576) was the son of Emperor Ferdinand I. He served during the Italian Wars in 1544, as well as the Schmalkadic War. His uncle, Emperor Charles V, made him marry his cousin and Charles' daughter Mary of Spain in 1548, and Maximilian acted temporarily as the emperor's representative in Spain. Questions of succession soon saw trouble brew between the German and Spanish branches of the Habsburg dynasty, and it was suspected that Maximilian was poisoned in 1552 by those in league with his cousin and brother-in-law, Philip II.<br/><br/> The relationship between Maximilian and his cousin Philip soon became uneasy, with Philip being a Spaniard born and raised, while Maximilian idenitifed himself as the quintessential German prince: outgoing, charismatic and religiously tolerant. He governed the Austrian hereditary lands alongside his father, defending them against Ottoman incursions. He was chosen and crowned as King of Germany in 1562 after assuring the Catholic electors of his faith, and was crowned a year later as King of Hungary. By the time his father died in 1564, Maximilian had inherited the crowns of Croatia, Bohemia and of the Holy Roman emperor.<br/><br/> Maximilian's rule was marred by the ongoing Ottoman-Habsburg wars as well as deteriorating relations with his Habsburg cousins in the Spanish Empire. By the time of his death in 1576, he had not succeeded in achieving his three major goals: rationalising the governmental structure, unifying Christianity and evicting the Ottomans from Hungary. He refused to receive the last sacraments of the Church while on his deathbed.
Ferdinand I (1503-1564) was the son of Philip I of Castile and Queen Joanna I of Castile, grandson of Emperor Maximilian I and younger brother of future emperor Charles V. Born and raised in Spain, he was sent to Flanders in 1518. When Charles became Holy Roman emperor in 1519, Ferdinand was entrusted with the governing of their hereditary Austrian lands, becoming Archduke of Austria and adopting the German culture as his own.<br/><br/> Ferdinand became King of Bohemia and Hungary in 1526 after the death of his brother-in-law Louis II, and served as his brother Charles' deputy in the Holy Roman Empire during his numerous absences, eventually being crowned as King of Germany in 1531 and serving as Charles' designated imperial heir. The crown of Croatia also became his in 1527, and fought to push back the Ottomans from Central Europe, eventually repelling them in 1533 but forced to concede the eastern portion of Hungary.<br/><br/> Ferdinand also had to deal with the Protestant Reformation under Luther, and was able to order the Diet in Augsburg, leading to the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. When Charles V abdicated in 1556, Ferdinand was elected as his successor to the imperial throne, becoming Holy Roman emperor in 1558. He continued to ably rule the Holy Roman Empire until his death in 1564, leaving an enduring legacy from his handling of the Protestant Reformation and his efforts against the Ottoman Empire.
Ferdinand I (1503-1564) was the son of Philip I of Castile and Queen Joanna I of Castile, grandson of Emperor Maximilian I and younger brother of future emperor Charles V. Born and raised in Spain, he was sent to Flanders in 1518. When Charles became Holy Roman emperor in 1519, Ferdinand was entrusted with the governing of their hereditary Austrian lands, becoming Archduke of Austria and adopting the German culture as his own.<br/><br/> When Charles V abdicated in 1556, Ferdinand was elected as his successor to the imperial throne, becoming Holy Roman emperor in 1558. He continued to ably rule the Holy Roman Empire until his death in 1564, leaving an enduring legacy from his handling of the Protestant Reformation and his efforts against the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> Philippine Welser (1527 – 24 April 1580) was the morganatic wife of Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria. She was granted the titles Baroness of Zinnenburg, Margravine of Burgau, Landgravine of Mellenburg and Countess of Oberhohenberg and Niederhohenberg.
Ferdinand I (1503-1564) was the son of Philip I of Castile and Queen Joanna I of Castile, grandson of Emperor Maximilian I and younger brother of future emperor Charles V. Born and raised in Spain, he was sent to Flanders in 1518. When Charles became Holy Roman emperor in 1519, Ferdinand was entrusted with the governing of their hereditary Austrian lands, becoming Archduke of Austria and adopting the German culture as his own.<br/><br/> Ferdinand became King of Bohemia and Hungary in 1526 after the death of his brother-in-law Louis II, and served as his brother Charles' deputy in the Holy Roman Empire during his numerous absences, eventually being crowned as King of Germany in 1531 and serving as Charles' designated imperial heir. The crown of Croatia also became his in 1527, and fought to push back the Ottomans from Central Europe, eventually repelling them in 1533 but forced to concede the eastern portion of Hungary.<br/><br/> Ferdinand also had to deal with the Protestant Reformation under Luther, and was able to order the Diet in Augsburg, leading to the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. When Charles V abdicated in 1556, Ferdinand was elected as his successor to the imperial throne, becoming Holy Roman emperor in 1558. He continued to ably rule the Holy Roman Empire until his death in 1564, leaving an enduring legacy from his handling of the Protestant Reformation and his efforts against the Ottoman Empire.
Ferdinand I (1503-1564) was the son of Philip I of Castile and Queen Joanna I of Castile, grandson of Emperor Maximilian I and younger brother of future emperor Charles V. Born and raised in Spain, he was sent to Flanders in 1518. When Charles became Holy Roman emperor in 1519, Ferdinand was entrusted with the governing of their hereditary Austrian lands, becoming Archduke of Austria and adopting the German culture as his own.<br/><br/> When Charles V abdicated in 1556, Ferdinand was elected as his successor to the imperial throne, becoming Holy Roman emperor in 1558. He continued to ably rule the Holy Roman Empire until his death in 1564, leaving an enduring legacy from his handling of the Protestant Reformation and his efforts against the Ottoman Empire.
Albert II (1397-1439), also known as Albert of Germany and Albert the Magnanimous, was the son of Albert IV, Duke of Austria, succeeding his father at the age of seven in 1404, though he did not become the proper governor of Austria until 1411. Albert married Elisabeth of Luxembourg, heiress of Emperor Sigismund, in 1422.<br/><br/> Albert assisted his father-in-law during the Hussite Wars, and was in turn named as successor in 1423. When Sigismund died in 1437, Albert was crowned King of Hungary a year later. He was crowned King of Bohemia six months afterwards, though he did not obtain actual possession of the country, and was forced to wage war against the Bohemians and their Polish allies. The crown of Germany was given to him in 1438.<br/><br/> Albert died in 1439 while defending Hungary from a Turkish invasion, and despite his short reign was known for being an energetic and warlike prince. He was also known for his harsh treatment of Austria's Jewish community, imprisoning and forcibly converting them or expelling them from Austria. Albert sentenced many Jews to death, burning them at the stake in 1421, destroying their synagogue in Vienna and placing an 'eternal ban' on them.
Albert II (1397-1439), also known as Albert of Germany and Albert the Magnanimous, was the son of Albert IV, Duke of Austria, succeeding his father at the age of seven in 1404, though he did not become the proper governor of Austria until 1411. Albert married Elisabeth of Luxembourg, heiress of Emperor Sigismund, in 1422.<br/><br/> Albert assisted his father-in-law during the Hussite Wars, and was in turn named as successor in 1423. When Sigismund died in 1437, Albert was crowned King of Hungary a year later. He was crowned King of Bohemia six months afterwards, though he did not obtain actual possession of the country, and was forced to wage war against the Bohemians and their Polish allies. The crown of Germany was given to him in 1438.<br/><br/> Albert died in 1439 while defending Hungary from a Turkish invasion, and despite his short reign was known for being an energetic and warlike prince. He was also known for his harsh treatment of Austria's Jewish community, imprisoning and forcibly converting them or expelling them from Austria. Albert sentenced many Jews to death, burning them at the stake in 1421, destroying their synagogue in Vienna and placing an 'eternal ban' on them.
Albert II (1397-1439), also known as Albert of Germany and Albert the Magnanimous, was the son of Albert IV, Duke of Austria, succeeding his father at the age of seven in 1404, though he did not become the proper governor of Austria until 1411. Albert married Elisabeth of Luxembourg, heiress of Emperor Sigismund, in 1422.<br/><br/> Albert assisted his father-in-law during the Hussite Wars, and was in turn named as successor in 1423. When Sigismund died in 1437, Albert was crowned King of Hungary a year later. He was crowned King of Bohemia six months afterwards, though he did not obtain actual possession of the country, and was forced to wage war against the Bohemians and their Polish allies. The crown of Germany was given to him in 1438.<br/><br/> Albert died in 1439 while defending Hungary from a Turkish invasion, and despite his short reign was known for being an energetic and warlike prince. He was also known for his harsh treatment of Austria's Jewish community, imprisoning and forcibly converting them or expelling them from Austria. Albert sentenced many Jews to death, burning them at the stake in 1421, destroying their synagogue in Vienna and placing an 'eternal ban' on them.
Albert II (1397-1439), also known as Albert of Germany and Albert the Magnanimous, was the son of Albert IV, Duke of Austria, succeeding his father at the age of seven in 1404, though he did not become the proper governor of Austria until 1411. Albert married Elisabeth of Luxembourg, heiress of Emperor Sigismund, in 1422.<br/><br/> Albert assisted his father-in-law during the Hussite Wars, and was in turn named as successor in 1423. When Sigismund died in 1437, Albert was crowned King of Hungary a year later. He was crowned King of Bohemia six months afterwards, though he did not obtain actual possession of the country, and was forced to wage war against the Bohemians and their Polish allies. The crown of Germany was given to him in 1438.<br/><br/> Albert died in 1439 while defending Hungary from a Turkish invasion, and despite his short reign was known for being an energetic and warlike prince. He was also known for his harsh treatment of Austria's Jewish community, imprisoning and forcibly converting them or expelling them from Austria. Albert sentenced many Jews to death, burning them at the stake in 1421, destroying their synagogue in Vienna and placing an 'eternal ban' on them.
Ferdinand I (1503-1564) was the son of Philip I of Castile and Queen Joanna I of Castile, grandson of Emperor Maximilian I and younger brother of future emperor Charles V. Born and raised in Spain, he was sent to Flanders in 1518. When Charles became Holy Roman emperor in 1519, Ferdinand was entrusted with the governing of their hereditary Austrian lands, becoming Archduke of Austria and adopting the German culture as his own.<br/><br/> Ferdinand became King of Bohemia and Hungary in 1526 after the death of his brother-in-law Louis II, and served as his brother Charles' deputy in the Holy Roman Empire during his numerous absences, eventually being crowned as King of Germany in 1531 and serving as Charles' designated imperial heir. The crown of Croatia also became his in 1527, and fought to push back the Ottomans from Central Europe, eventually repelling them in 1533 but forced to concede the eastern portion of Hungary.<br/><br/> Ferdinand also had to deal with the Protestant Reformation under Luther, and was able to order the Diet in Augsburg, leading to the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. When Charles V abdicated in 1556, Ferdinand was elected as his successor to the imperial throne, becoming Holy Roman emperor in 1558. He continued to ably rule the Holy Roman Empire until his death in 1564, leaving an enduring legacy from his handling of the Protestant Reformation and his efforts against the Ottoman Empire.
Ferdinand I (1503-1564) was the son of Philip I of Castile and Queen Joanna I of Castile, grandson of Emperor Maximilian I and younger brother of future emperor Charles V. Born and raised in Spain, he was sent to Flanders in 1518. When Charles became Holy Roman emperor in 1519, Ferdinand was entrusted with the governing of their hereditary Austrian lands, becoming Archduke of Austria and adopting the German culture as his own.<br/><br/> Ferdinand became King of Bohemia and Hungary in 1526 after the death of his brother-in-law Louis II, and served as his brother Charles' deputy in the Holy Roman Empire during his numerous absences, eventually being crowned as King of Germany in 1531 and serving as Charles' designated imperial heir. The crown of Croatia also became his in 1527, and fought to push back the Ottomans from Central Europe, eventually repelling them in 1533 but forced to concede the eastern portion of Hungary.<br/><br/> Ferdinand also had to deal with the Protestant Reformation under Luther, and was able to order the Diet in Augsburg, leading to the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. When Charles V abdicated in 1556, Ferdinand was elected as his successor to the imperial throne, becoming Holy Roman emperor in 1558. He continued to ably rule the Holy Roman Empire until his death in 1564, leaving an enduring legacy from his handling of the Protestant Reformation and his efforts against the Ottoman Empire.
Albert II (1397-1439), also known as Albert of Germany and Albert the Magnanimous, was the son of Albert IV, Duke of Austria, succeeding his father at the age of seven in 1404, though he did not become the proper governor of Austria until 1411. Albert married Elisabeth of Luxembourg, heiress of Emperor Sigismund, in 1422.<br/><br/> Albert assisted his father-in-law during the Hussite Wars, and was in turn named as successor in 1423. When Sigismund died in 1437, Albert was crowned King of Hungary a year later. He was crowned King of Bohemia six months afterwards, though he did not obtain actual possession of the country, and was forced to wage war against the Bohemians and their Polish allies. The crown of Germany was given to him in 1438.<br/><br/> Albert died in 1439 while defending Hungary from a Turkish invasion, and despite his short reign was known for being an energetic and warlike prince. He was also known for his harsh treatment of Austria's Jewish community, imprisoning and forcibly converting them or expelling them from Austria. Albert sentenced many Jews to death, burning them at the stake in 1421, destroying their synagogue in Vienna and placing an 'eternal ban' on them.
Albert II (1397-1439), also known as Albert of Germany and Albert the Magnanimous, was the son of Albert IV, Duke of Austria, succeeding his father at the age of seven in 1404, though he did not become the proper governor of Austria until 1411. Albert married Elisabeth of Luxembourg, heiress of Emperor Sigismund, in 1422.<br/><br/> Albert assisted his father-in-law during the Hussite Wars, and was in turn named as successor in 1423. When Sigismund died in 1437, Albert was crowned King of Hungary a year later. He was crowned King of Bohemia six months afterwards, though he did not obtain actual possession of the country, and was forced to wage war against the Bohemians and their Polish allies. The crown of Germany was given to him in 1438.<br/><br/> Albert died in 1439 while defending Hungary from a Turkish invasion, and despite his short reign was known for being an energetic and warlike prince. He was also known for his harsh treatment of Austria's Jewish community, imprisoning and forcibly converting them or expelling them from Austria. Albert sentenced many Jews to death, burning them at the stake in 1421, destroying their synagogue in Vienna and placing an 'eternal ban' on them.
'King Sigismund in the Court Church of Lucerne, 1417', watercolour drawing from the <i>Luzerner Schilling</i> by Diebold Schilling the Younger (1460-1515), c. 1513.<br/><br/> Sigismund (1368-1437) was the son of Emperor Charles IV and younger brother of King Wenceslaus. He led the last West European Crusade, the Crusade of Nicopolis, in 1396, leading a combined Christian army against the Turks. He was elected as King of Germany in 1411 after the death of King Rupert. He also became King of Bohemia in 1419 and managed to be crowned King of Italy in 1431. Sigismund marched into Rome and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1433.
Sigismund (1368-1437), also known as Sigismund of Luxembourg, was the son of Emperor Charles IV and younger brother of King Wenceslaus. Sigismund was betrothed to Princess Mary, eldest daughter of King Louis the Great of Hungary and Poland, marrying her in 1385 and becoming King of Hungary and Croatia in 1387.<br/><br/> Sigismund led the last West European Crusade, the Crusade of Nicopolis, in 1396, leading a combined Christian army against the Turks. The Crusade was a disaster and ended in defeat, Sigismund being imprisoned and deposed in 1401 upon his return to Hungary, though he would later regain the throne. He imprisoned his own brother, King Wenceslaus, in 1403, taking over rule of Bohemia. He was elected as King of Germany in 1411 after the death of King Rupert. He also became King of Bohemia in 1419 and managed to be crowned King of Italy in 1431.<br/><br/> Sigismund marched into Rome and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1433. He led multiple campaigns against the Turkish Ottoman Empire, all with little success, and founded the Order of the Dragon in 1408 with the sole goal of fighting the Turks. He also waged the Hussite Wars from 1419 to 1430. Sigismund died in 1437, the last of the Luxembourg dynasty.
Sigismund (1368-1437), also known as Sigismund of Luxembourg, was the son of Emperor Charles IV and younger brother of King Wenceslaus. Sigismund was betrothed to Princess Mary, eldest daughter of King Louis the Great of Hungary and Poland, marrying her in 1385 and becoming King of Hungary and Croatia in 1387.<br/><br/> Sigismund led the last West European Crusade, the Crusade of Nicopolis, in 1396, leading a combined Christian army against the Turks. The Crusade was a disaster and ended in defeat, Sigismund being imprisoned and deposed in 1401 upon his return to Hungary, though he would later regain the throne. He imprisoned his own brother, King Wenceslaus, in 1403, taking over rule of Bohemia. He was elected as King of Germany in 1411 after the death of King Rupert. He also became King of Bohemia in 1419 and managed to be crowned King of Italy in 1431.<br/><br/> Sigismund marched into Rome and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1433. He led multiple campaigns against the Turkish Ottoman Empire, all with little success, and founded the Order of the Dragon in 1408 with the sole goal of fighting the Turks. He also waged the Hussite Wars from 1419 to 1430. Sigismund died in 1437, the last of the Luxembourg dynasty.
Sigismund (1368-1437), also known as Sigismund of Luxembourg, was the son of Emperor Charles IV and younger brother of King Wenceslaus. Sigismund was betrothed to Princess Mary, eldest daughter of King Louis the Great of Hungary and Poland, marrying her in 1385 and becoming King of Hungary and Croatia in 1387.<br/><br/> Sigismund led the last West European Crusade, the Crusade of Nicopolis, in 1396, leading a combined Christian army against the Turks. The Crusade was a disaster and ended in defeat, Sigismund being imprisoned and deposed in 1401 upon his return to Hungary, though he would later regain the throne. He imprisoned his own brother, King Wenceslaus, in 1403, taking over rule of Bohemia. He was elected as King of Germany in 1411 after the death of King Rupert. He also became King of Bohemia in 1419 and managed to be crowned King of Italy in 1431.<br/><br/> Sigismund marched into Rome and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1433. He led multiple campaigns against the Turkish Ottoman Empire, all with little success, and founded the Order of the Dragon in 1408 with the sole goal of fighting the Turks. He also waged the Hussite Wars from 1419 to 1430. Sigismund died in 1437, the last of the Luxembourg dynasty.
Sigismund (1368-1437), also known as Sigismund of Luxembourg, was the son of Emperor Charles IV and younger brother of King Wenceslaus. Sigismund was betrothed to Princess Mary, eldest daughter of King Louis the Great of Hungary and Poland, marrying her in 1385 and becoming King of Hungary and Croatia in 1387.<br/><br/> Sigismund led the last West European Crusade, the Crusade of Nicopolis, in 1396, leading a combined Christian army against the Turks. The Crusade was a disaster and ended in defeat, Sigismund being imprisoned and deposed in 1401 upon his return to Hungary, though he would later regain the throne. He imprisoned his own brother, King Wenceslaus, in 1403, taking over rule of Bohemia. He was elected as King of Germany in 1411 after the death of King Rupert. He also became King of Bohemia in 1419 and managed to be crowned King of Italy in 1431.<br/><br/> Sigismund marched into Rome and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1433. He led multiple campaigns against the Turkish Ottoman Empire, all with little success, and founded the Order of the Dragon in 1408 with the sole goal of fighting the Turks. He also waged the Hussite Wars from 1419 to 1430. Sigismund died in 1437, the last of the Luxembourg dynasty.
Franz Joseph I or Francis Joseph I (German: Franz Joseph I., Hungarian: I. Ferenc Jozsef, Croatian: Franjo Josip I, Czech: Frantisek Josef I, Italian: Francesco Giuseppe; 18 August 1830 – 21 November 1916) was Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia from 2 December 1848 until his death on 21 November 1916.<br/><br/> From 1 May 1850 to 24 August 1866 he was also President of the German Confederation. He was the longest-reigning Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, as well as the third longest-reigning monarch of any country in European history, after Louis XIV of France and Johann II of Liechtenstein.
The Battle of Vienna took place at Kahlenberg Mountain near Vienna on 12 September 1683 after the imperial city had been besieged by the Ottoman Empire for two months. The battle was fought by the Habsburg Monarchy, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Holy Roman Empire, under the command of King John III Sobieski against the Ottomans and their vassal and tributary states. The battle marked the first time the Commonwealth and the Holy Roman Empire had cooperated militarily against the Ottomans, and it is often seen as a turning point in history, after which 'the Ottoman Turks ceased to be a menace to the Christian world'. In the ensuing war that lasted until 1699, the Ottomans lost almost all of Hungary to the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I.
Rudolf II (1552-1612) was the eldest son and successor of Emperor Maximilian II, and spent eight formative years in the Spanish court of his maternal uncle Philip II, adopting a stiff and aloof manner typical of the more conservative Spanish nobility. He remained reserved and secretive for the rest of his life, less inclined to daily affairs of state and more interested in occult studies such as alchemy and astrology.<br/><br/> Rudolf became King of Hungary and Croatia in 1572, and by the time of his father's death in 1576, had also inherited the Bohemian, German and Holy Roman crowns. Rudolf dangled himself as a marital prize in various diplomatic negotiations, but like his contemporary, Queen Elizabeth I of England, he ultimately never married. Rudolf did have a succession of affairs with various women however, resulting in several illegitimate children. He was also religiously neutral, tolerant to Protestantism and other religions despite being raised in a Catholic court.<br/><br/> Rudolf's conflict with the Ottoman Empire would be his undoing. He started a long and indecisive war with the Ottomans in 1593 that lasted till 1606 and was known as The Long War. His Hungarian subjects revolted in 1604, tired from the fighting, and he was forced to cede the Hungarian crown to his younger brother, Archduke Matthias. Bohemian Protestants also pressed for greater religious liberty, and when Rudolf attempted to use his army to repress them in 1609, Matthias imprisoned Rudolf and forced him to cede the Bohemian crown as well. Rudolf died in 1612, having been stripped of all effective power aside from the empty title of Holy Roman Emperor.
Franz Liszt (born Franz Joseph Liszt), Hungarian: Liszt Ferencz, in modern usage Liszt Ferenc (October 22, 1811 – July 31, 1886) was a prolific 19th-century Hungarian composer, virtuoso pianist, conductor, music teacher, arranger, organist, philanthropist, author, nationalist and a Franciscan tertiary.
Ferdinand I (1503-1564) was the son of Philip I of Castile and Queen Joanna I of Castile, grandson of Emperor Maximilian I and younger brother of future emperor Charles V. Born and raised in Spain, he was sent to Flanders in 1518. When Charles became Holy Roman emperor in 1519, Ferdinand was entrusted with the governing of their hereditary Austrian lands, becoming Archduke of Austria and adopting the German culture as his own.<br/><br/> Ferdinand became King of Bohemia and Hungary in 1526 after the death of his brother-in-law Louis II, and served as his brother Charles' deputy in the Holy Roman Empire during his numerous absences, eventually being crowned as King of Germany in 1531 and serving as Charles' designated imperial heir. The crown of Croatia also became his in 1527, and he fought to push back the Ottomans from Central Europe, eventually repelling them in 1533 but forced to concede the eastern portion of Hungary.<br/><br/> Ferdinand also had to deal with the Protestant Reformation under Luther, and was able to order the Diet in Augsburg, leading to the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. When Charles V abdicated in 1556, Ferdinand was elected as his successor to the imperial throne, becoming Holy Roman emperor in 1558. He continued to ably rule the Holy Roman Empire until his death in 1564, leaving an enduring legacy from his handling of the Protestant Reformation and his efforts against the Ottoman Empire.
Ferdinand I (1503-1564), 31st Holy Roman emperor, by Barthel Beham (1502-1540), c. 1531.<br/><br/> Ferdinand I (1503-1564) was the son of Philip I of Castile and Queen Joanna I of Castile, grandson of Emperor Maximilian I and younger brother of future emperor Charles V. Ferdinand became King of Bohemia and Hungary in 1526 after the death of his brother-in-law Louis II, and served as his brother Charles' deputy in the Holy Roman Empire during his numerous absences, eventually being crowned as King of Germany in 1531. When Charles V abdicated in 1556, Ferdinand was elected as his successor to the imperial throne, becoming Holy Roman emperor in 1558.
Rudolf II (1552-1612) was the eldest son and successor of Emperor Maximilian II, and spent eight formative years in the Spanish court of his maternal uncle Philip II, adopting a stiff and aloof manner typical of the more conservative Spanish nobility. He remained reserved and secretive for the rest of his life, less inclined to daily affairs of state and more interested in occult studies such as alchemy and astrology.<br/><br/> Rudolf became King of Hungary and Croatia in 1572, and by the time of his father's death in 1576, had also inherited the Bohemian, German and Holy Roman crowns. Rudolf dangled himself as a marital prize in various diplomatic negotiations, but like his contemporary, Queen Elizabeth I of England, he ultimately never married. Rudolf did have a succession of affairs with various women however, resulting in several illegitimate children. He was also religiously neutral, tolerant to Protestantism and other religions despite being raised in a Catholic court.<br/><br/> Rudolf's conflict with the Ottoman Empire would be his undoing. He started a long and indecisive war with the Ottomans in 1593 that lasted till 1606 and was known as The Long War. His Hungarian subjects revolted in 1604, tired from the fighting, and he was forced to cede the Hungarian crown to his younger brother, Archduke Matthias. Bohemian Protestants also pressed for greater religious liberty, and when Rudolf attempted to use his army to repress them in 1609, Matthias imprisoned Rudolf and forced him to cede the Bohemian crown as well. Rudolf died in 1612, having been stripped of all effective power aside from the empty title of Holy Roman Emperor.
Rudolf II (1552-1612) was the eldest son and successor of Emperor Maximilian II, and spent eight formative years in the Spanish court of his maternal uncle Philip II, adopting a stiff and aloof manner typical of the more conservative Spanish nobility. He remained reserved and secretive for the rest of his life, less inclined to daily affairs of state and more interested in occult studies such as alchemy and astrology.<br/><br/> Rudolf became King of Hungary and Croatia in 1572, and by the time of his father's death in 1576, had also inherited the Bohemian, German and Holy Roman crowns. Rudolf dangled himself as a marital prize in various diplomatic negotiations, but like his contemporary, Queen Elizabeth I of England, he ultimately never married. Rudolf did have a succession of affairs with various women however, resulting in several illegitimate children. He was also religiously neutral, tolerant to Protestantism and other religions despite being raised in a Catholic court.<br/><br/> Rudolf's conflict with the Ottoman Empire would be his undoing. He started a long and indecisive war with the Ottomans in 1593 that lasted till 1606 and was known as The Long War. His Hungarian subjects revolted in 1604, tired from the fighting, and he was forced to cede the Hungarian crown to his younger brother, Archduke Matthias. Bohemian Protestants also pressed for greater religious liberty, and when Rudolf attempted to use his army to repress them in 1609, Matthias imprisoned Rudolf and forced him to cede the Bohemian crown as well. Rudolf died in 1612, having been stripped of all effective power aside from the empty title of Holy Roman Emperor.
Teller immigrated to the United States in the 1930s, and was an early member of the Manhattan Project charged with developing the first atomic bombs. During this time he made a serious push to develop the first fusion-based weapons as well, but these were deferred until after World War II.<br/><br/> After his controversial testimony in the security clearance hearing of his former Los Alamos colleague J. Robert Oppenheimer, Teller was ostracized by much of the scientific community. He continued to find support from the U.S. government and military research establishment, particularly for his advocacy for nuclear energy development, a strong nuclear arsenal, and a vigorous nuclear testing program.<br/><br/> He was a co-founder of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), and was both its director and associate director for many years.
Maximilian II (1527-1576) was the son of Emperor Ferdinand I. He served during the Italian Wars in 1544, as well as the Schmalkadic War. His uncle, Emperor Charles V, made him marry his cousin and Charles' daughter Mary of Spain in 1548, and Maximilian acted temporarily as the emperor's representative in Spain. Questions of succession soon saw trouble brew between the German and Spanish branches of the Habsburg dynasty, and it was suspected that Maximilian was poisoned in 1552 by those in league with his cousin and brother-in-law, Philip II.<br/><br/> The relationship between Maximilian and his cousin Philip soon became uneasy, with Philip being a Spaniard born and raised, while Maximilian idenitifed himself as the quintessential German prince: outgoing, charismatic and religiously tolerant. He governed the Austrian hereditary lands alongside his father, defending them against Ottoman incursions. He was chosen and crowned as King of Germany in 1562 after assuring the Catholic electors of his faith, and was crowned a year later as King of Hungary. By the time his father died in 1564, Maximilian had inherited the crowns of Croatia, Bohemia and of the Holy Roman emperor.<br/><br/> Maximilian's rule was marred by the ongoing Ottoman-Habsburg wars as well as deteriorating relations with his Habsburg cousins in the Spanish Empire. By the time of his death in 1576, he had not succeeded in achieving his three major goals: rationalising the governmental structure, unifying Christianity and evicting the Ottomans from Hungary. He refused to receive the last sacraments of the Church while on his deathbed.
Copper engraving of Maximilian II (1527-1576), 32nd Holy Roman emperor, by Emanuel van Meteren (1535-1612) and Simeon Ruytinck (-1621), c. 1614.<br/><br/> Maximilian II (1527-1576) was the son of Emperor Ferdinand I. By the time his father died in 1564, Maximilian had inherited the crowns of Croatia, Bohemia and of the Holy Roman emperor.
Sultan Suleyman I (1494-1566), also known as 'Suleyman the Magnificent' and 'Suleyman the Lawmaker', was the 10th and longest reigning sultan of the Ottoman empire.<br/><br/>He personally led his armies to conquer Transylvania, the Caspian, much of the Middle East and the Maghreb. He intoduced sweeping reforms in Turkish legislation, education, taxation and criminal law, and was highly respected as a poet and a goldsmith. Suleyman also oversaw a golden age in the development of arts, literature and architecture in the Ottoman empire.
The story of Saint George and the Dragon appended to the hagiography of Saint George was Eastern in origin, brought back with the Crusaders and retold with the courtly appurtenances belonging to the genre of Romance. The earliest known depictions of the motif are from tenth- or eleventh-century Cappadocia and eleventh-century Georgia; previously, in the iconography of Eastern Orthodoxy, George had been depicted as a soldier since at least the seventh century. The earliest known surviving narrative of the dragon episode is an eleventh-century Georgian text.<br/><br/> The dragon motif was first combined with the already standardised Passio Georgii in Vincent of Beauvais' encyclopedic Speculum Historiale, and then Jacobus de Voragine's Golden Legend (ca 1260) guaranteed its popularity in the later Middle Ages as a literary and pictorial subject. The legend gradually became part of the Christian traditions relating to Saint George and was used in many festivals thereafter.
The Nuremberg Chronicle is an illustrated world history. Its structure follows the story of human history as related in the Bible; it includes the histories of a number of important Western cities. Written in Latin by Hartmann Schedel, with a version in German translation by Georg Alt, it appeared in 1493. It is one of the best-documented early printed books - an incunabulum (printed, not hand-written) - and one of the first to successfully integrate illustrations and text.
The Battle of Mohács was fought on August 29, 1526 near Mohács in Hungary. The forces of King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia were defeated by the Ottoman army led by Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent. The Ottoman victory marked the end of the Jagiellon dynasty in Hungary which was partitioned for several centuries between the Ottoman Empire, the Habsburg Monarchy, and the Principality of Transylvania.
Sultan Suleyman I (1494-1566), also known as 'Suleyman the Magnificent' and 'Suleyman the Lawmaker', was the 10th and longest reigning sultan of the Ottoman empire. He personally led his armies to conquer Transylvania, the Caspian, much of the Middle East and the Maghreb. In this painting he receives Stephen Zapolya, the king of Hungary. Aged 72, Suleyman is depicted as old and weak, and an air of solemnity permeates the scene.
The Eight-Nation Alliance was an alliance of Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States, whose military forces intervened in China during the Boxer Uprising and relieved the siege of diplomatic legations in Peking (Beijing) in the summer of 1900.<br/><br/> The Boxer Rebellion, also known as Boxer Uprising or Yihetuan Movement, was a proto-nationalist movement by the Righteous Harmony Society in China between 1898 and 1901, opposing foreign imperialism and Christianity.<br/><br/> The uprising took place in response to foreign spheres of influence in China, with grievances ranging from opium traders, political invasion, economic manipulation, to missionary evangelism. In China, popular sentiment remained resistant to foreign influences, and anger rose over the 'unequal treaties', which the weak Qing state could not resist.<br/><br/> Concerns grew that missionaries and Chinese Christians could use this decline to their advantage, appropriating lands and property of unwilling Chinese peasants to give to the church. This sentiment resulted in violent revolts against foreign interests.
The Battle of Buda (1686) was fought between the Holy League and Ottoman Turkey, as part of the follow-up campaign in Hungary after the Battle of Vienna. The Holy League took Buda after a long siege.<br/><br/> After the unsuccessful second siege of Vienna by the Turks in 1683, which started the Great Turkish War, an imperial counteroffensive started for the re-conquest of Hungary, so that the Hungarian capital Buda could be freed from the Turks.
Mehmed III Adli (May 26, 1566 – December 21/22, 1603) was sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1595-1603. He remains notorious for having nineteen of his brothers and half brothers murdered to secure power. He also killed over twenty of his sisters. They were all strangled by deaf-mutes. Mehmed III was an idle ruler, leaving government to his mother Safiye Sultan, the valide sultan. The major event of his reign was the Austro-Ottoman War in Hungary (1593–1606). Ottoman defeats in the war caused Mehmed III to take personal command of the army, the first sultan to do so since Suleyman I. Mehmed III's armies conquered Eger in 1596 and defeated the Habsburg and Transylvanian forces at the Battle of Keresztes (Turkish for Battle of Hacova).
Mehmed III Adli (May 26, 1566 – December 21/22, 1603) was sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1595-1603. He remains notorious for having nineteen of his brothers and half brothers murdered to secure power. He also killed over twenty of his sisters. They were all strangled by deaf-mutes. Mehmed III was an idle ruler, leaving government to his mother Safiye Sultan, the valide sultan. The major event of his reign was the Austro-Ottoman War in Hungary (1593–1606). Ottoman defeats in the war caused Mehmed III to take personal command of the army, the first sultan to do so since Suleyman I. Mehmed III's armies conquered Eger in 1596 and defeated the Habsburg and Transylvanian forces at the Battle of Keresztes (Turkish for Battle of Hacova).
Mehmed III Adli (May 26, 1566 – December 21/22, 1603) was sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1595-1603. He remains notorious for having nineteen of his brothers and half brothers murdered to secure power. He also killed over twenty of his sisters. They were all strangled by deaf-mutes. Mehmed III was an idle ruler, leaving government to his mother Safiye Sultan, the valide sultan. The major event of his reign was the Austro-Ottoman War in Hungary (1593–1606). Ottoman defeats in the war caused Mehmed III to take personal command of the army, the first sultan to do so since Suleyman I. Mehmed III's armies conquered Eger in 1596 and defeated the Habsburg and Transylvanian forces at the Battle of Keresztes (Turkish for Battle of Hacova).
Mehmed III Adli (May 26, 1566 – December 21/22, 1603) was sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1595-1603. He remains notorious for having nineteen of his brothers and half brothers murdered to secure power. He also killed over twenty of his sisters. They were all strangled by deaf-mutes. Mehmed III was an idle ruler, leaving government to his mother Safiye Sultan, the valide sultan. The major event of his reign was the Austro-Ottoman War in Hungary (1593–1606). Ottoman defeats in the war caused Mehmed III to take personal command of the army, the first sultan to do so since Suleyman I. Mehmed III's armies conquered Eger in 1596 and defeated the Habsburg and Transylvanian forces at the Battle of Keresztes (Turkish for Battle of Hacova).
Mehmed III Adli (May 26, 1566 – December 21/22, 1603) was sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1595-1603. He remains notorious for having nineteen of his brothers and half brothers murdered to secure power. He also killed over twenty of his sisters. They were all strangled by deaf-mutes. Mehmed III was an idle ruler, leaving government to his mother Safiye Sultan, the valide sultan. The major event of his reign was the Austro-Ottoman War in Hungary (1593–1606). Ottoman defeats in the war caused Mehmed III to take personal command of the army, the first sultan to do so since Suleyman I. Mehmed III's armies conquered Eger in 1596 and defeated the Habsburg and Transylvanian forces at the Battle of Keresztes (Turkish for Battle of Hacova).
Sultan Suleyman I (1494-1566), also known as 'Suleyman the Magnificent' and 'Suleyman the Lawmaker', was the 10th and longest reigning sultan of the Ottoman empire.<br/><br/>He personally led his armies to conquer Transylvania, the Caspian, much of the Middle East and the Maghreb. He intoduced sweeping reforms in Turkish legislation, education, taxation and criminal law, and was highly respected as a poet and a goldsmith. Suleyman also oversaw a golden age in the development of arts, literature and architecture in the Ottoman empire.