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Sayyid Sir Khalifa II bin Harub Al-Said, GCB, GCMG, GBE (August 26, 1879 – October 9, 1960) (Arabic: خليفة بن حارب البوسعيد‎) was the ninth Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Zanzibar from December 9, 1911 to October 9, 1960.<br/><br/> In 1900, he married Princess Sayyida Matuka bint Hamud Al-Busaid, daughter of the seventh Sultan of Zanzibar and sister of the eighth Sultan. He was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Abdullah bin Khalifa
Sayyid Sir Khalifa II bin Harub Al-Said, GCB, GCMG, GBE (August 26, 1879 – October 9, 1960) (Arabic: خليفة بن حارب البوسعيد‎) was the ninth Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Zanzibar from December 9, 1911 to October 9, 1960.<br/><br/> In 1900, he married Princess Sayyida Matuka bint Hamud Al-Busaid, daughter of the seventh Sultan of Zanzibar and sister of the eighth Sultan. He was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Abdullah bin Khalifa
Sayyid Sir Khalifa II bin Harub Al-Said, GCB, GCMG, GBE (August 26, 1879 – October 9, 1960) (Arabic: خليفة بن حارب البوسعيد‎) was the ninth Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Zanzibar from December 9, 1911 to October 9, 1960.<br/><br/> In 1900, he married Princess Sayyida Matuka bint Hamud Al-Busaid, daughter of the seventh Sultan of Zanzibar and sister of the eighth Sultan. He was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Abdullah bin Khalifa
Sayyid Sir Khalifa II bin Harub Al-Said, GCB, GCMG, GBE (August 26, 1879 – October 9, 1960) (Arabic: خليفة بن حارب البوسعيد‎) was the ninth Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Zanzibar from December 9, 1911 to October 9, 1960.<br/><br/> In 1900, he married Princess Sayyida Matuka bint Hamud Al-Busaid, daughter of the seventh Sultan of Zanzibar and sister of the eighth Sultan. He was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Abdullah bin Khalifa
Sayyid Sir Abdullah bin Khalifa Al-Said, KBE, CMG (February 12, 1910 – July 1, 1963) (Arabic: عبد الله بن خليفة‎) was the 10th Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Zanzibar from October 9, 1960 to July 1, 1963. On his death, he was succeeded as Sultan by his son Jamshid.
Sayyid Sir Khalifa II bin Harub Al-Said, GCB, GCMG, GBE (August 26, 1879 – October 9, 1960) (Arabic: خليفة بن حارب البوسعيد‎) was the ninth Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Zanzibar from December 9, 1911 to October 9, 1960.<br/><br/> In 1900, he married Princess Sayyida Matuka bint Hamud Al-Busaid, daughter of the seventh Sultan of Zanzibar and sister of the eighth Sultan. He was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Abdullah bin Khalifa
Sayyid Khalifa I bin Said Al-Busaid, GCMG, (or Chalîfe) (1852- February 13, 1890) (Arabic: خليفة بن سعيد البوسعيد‎) was the third Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Zanzibar from March 26, 1888 to February 13, 1890 and was succeeded by his brother, Ali bin Said.<br/><br/> Sayyid Khalifa I was appointed an Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the United Kingdom's Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George on 18 December 1889.
Sayyid Sir Khalifa II bin Harub Al-Said, GCB, GCMG, GBE (August 26, 1879 – October 9, 1960) (Arabic: خليفة بن حارب البوسعيد‎) was the ninth Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Zanzibar from December 9, 1911 to October 9, 1960.<br/><br/> In 1900, he married Princess Sayyida Matuka bint Hamud Al-Busaid, daughter of the seventh Sultan of Zanzibar and sister of the eighth Sultan. He was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Abdullah bin Khalifa
Sayyid Sir Khalifa II bin Harub Al-Said, GCB, GCMG, GBE (August 26, 1879 – October 9, 1960) (Arabic: خليفة بن حارب البوسعيد‎) was the ninth Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Zanzibar from December 9, 1911 to October 9, 1960.<br/><br/> Sayyid Sir Abdullah bin Khalifa Al-Said, KBE, CMG (February 12, 1910 – July 1, 1963) (Arabic: عبد الله بن خليفة‎) was the 10th Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Zanzibar from October 9, 1960 to July 1, 1963.<br/><br/> Sayyid Sir Jamshid bin Abdullah Al Said GCMG, (Arabic: جمشيد بن عبد الله‎) (born September 16, 1929 in Zanzibar) was the last Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Zanzibar from July 1, 1963 to January 12, 1964.
Sayyid Sir Khalifa II bin Harub Al-Said, GCB, GCMG, GBE (August 26, 1879 – October 9, 1960) (Arabic: خليفة بن حارب البوسعيد‎) was the ninth Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Zanzibar from December 9, 1911 to October 9, 1960.<br/><br/> In 1900, he married Princess Sayyida Matuka bint Hamud Al-Busaid, daughter of the seventh Sultan of Zanzibar and sister of the eighth Sultan. He was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Abdullah bin Khalifa
Sayyid Sir Abdullah bin Khalifa Al-Said, KBE, CMG (February 12, 1910 – July 1, 1963) (Arabic: عبد الله بن خليفة‎) was the 10th Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Zanzibar from October 9, 1960 to July 1, 1963. On his death, he was succeeded as Sultan by his son Jamshid.
Sayyid Sir Khalifa II bin Harub Al-Said, GCB, GCMG, GBE (August 26, 1879 – October 9, 1960) (Arabic: خليفة بن حارب البوسعيد‎) was the ninth Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Zanzibar from December 9, 1911 to October 9, 1960.<br/><br/> In 1900, he married Princess Sayyida Matuka bint Hamud Al-Busaid, daughter of the seventh Sultan of Zanzibar and sister of the eighth Sultan. He was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Abdullah bin Khalifa
Sayyid Sir Khalifa II bin Harub Al-Said, GCB, GCMG, GBE (August 26, 1879 – October 9, 1960) (Arabic: خليفة بن حارب البوسعيد‎) was the ninth Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Zanzibar from December 9, 1911 to October 9, 1960.<br/><br/> Sayyid Sir Abdullah bin Khalifa Al-Said, KBE, CMG (February 12, 1910 – July 1, 1963) (Arabic: عبد الله بن خليفة‎) was the 10th Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Zanzibar from October 9, 1960 to July 1, 1963.<br/><br/> Sayyid Sir Jamshid bin Abdullah Al Said GCMG, (Arabic: جمشيد بن عبد الله‎) (born September 16, 1929 in Zanzibar) was the last Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Zanzibar from July 1, 1963 to January 12, 1964.
Selim II (Ottoman Turkish: سليم ثانى Selīm-i sānī; 28 May 1524 – 12 December/15 December 1574); also known as 'Selim the Sot' and as 'Sarı Selim' (Selim the Blond); was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1566 until his death in 1574.
Selim II (Ottoman Turkish: سليم ثانى Selīm-i sānī; 28 May 1524 – 12 December/15 December 1574); also known as 'Selim the Sot' and as 'Sarı Selim' (Selim the Blond); was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1566 until his death in 1574.
Sultan Suleyman I (1494-1566), also known as 'Suleyman the Magnificent' and 'Suleyman the Lawmaker', was the 10th and longest reigning sultan of the Ottoman empire.<br/><br/>He personally led his armies to conquer Transylvania, the Caspian, much of the Middle East and the Maghreb. He intoduced sweeping reforms in Turkish legislation, education, taxation and criminal law, and was highly respected as a poet and a goldsmith. Suleyman also oversaw a golden age in the development of arts, literature and architecture in the Ottoman empire.
Mahmud I (1696 - July 1, 1754), known as the Hunchback, was a sultan of the Ottoman Empire and a son of Sultan Mustafa II (1664-1703). He became sultan after a coup by rebellious Janissaries resulted in his uncle, Sultan Ahmed III, being forced to abdicate.
Mustafa III (January 28, 1717 – January 21, 1774) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1757 to 1774. He was a son of Sultan Ahmed III (1703–30) and was succeeded by his brother Abdul Hamid I (1774–89). An energetic and perceptive ruler, Mustafa III sought to modernize the army and the internal state machinery to bring his empire in line with the Powers of Europe. Unfortunately the Ottoman state had declined so far that any general attempts at modernization were but a drop in the ocean, while any major plans to change the administrative status quo immediately roused the conservative Janissaries and imams to the point of rebellion.<br/><br/> Mustafa III did secure the services of foreign generals to initiate a reform of the infantry and artillery. The Sultan also ordered the founding of Academies for Mathematics, Navigation and the Sciences. Well aware of his own military weakness, Mustafa III assiduously avoided war and was powerless to prevent the annexation of the Crimea by Catherine II of Russia (1762–96). However this action, combined with further Russian aggression in Poland compelled Mustafa III to declare war on Russia shortly before his death. He died at Topkapi Palace, Istanbul.
Abū Jaʿfar Abdullāh al-Māʾmūn ibn Harūn (also spelled Almamon, Al-Maymun and el-Mâmoûn, Arabic ابوجعفر عبدالله المأمون) (September 13, 786 – August 9, 833) (المأمون) was an Abbasid caliph who reigned from 813 until his death in 833.<br/><br/> Illumination from the Ḫamse (quintet) of the Ottoman Turkish poet and scholar ʿAṭāʾullāh bin Yaḥyá ʿAṭāʾī (d. 1044 AH / 1634 CE).
Mustafa III (January 28, 1717 – January 21, 1774) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1757 to 1774. He was a son of Sultan Ahmed III (1703–30) and was succeeded by his brother Abdul Hamid I (1774–89). An energetic and perceptive ruler, Mustafa III sought to modernize the army and the internal state machinery to bring his empire in line with the Powers of Europe.<br/><br/>Unfortunately the Ottoman state had declined so far that any general attempts at modernization were but a drop in the ocean, while any major plans to change the administrative status quo immediately roused the conservative Janissaries and imams to the point of rebellion. Mustafa III did secure the services of foreign generals to initiate a reform of the infantry and artillery. The Sultan also ordered the founding of Academies for Mathematics, Navigation and the Sciences.<br/><br/>Well aware of his own military weakness, Mustafa III assiduously avoided war and was powerless to prevent the annexation of the Crimea by Catherine II of Russia (1762–96). However this action, combined with further Russian aggression in Poland compelled Mustafa III to declare war on Russia shortly before his death. He died at Topkapi Palace, Istanbul.
Selim II (Ottoman Turkish: سليم ثانى Selīm-i sānī; 28 May 1524 – 12 December/15 December 1574), also known as 'Selim the Sot' and as 'Sarı Selim' (Selim the Blond), was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1566 until his death in 1574.
Selim III (Ottoman Turkish: سليم ثالث Selīm-i sālis) (24 December 1761 – 28 or 29 July 1808) was the reform-minded Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807. The Janissaries eventually deposed and imprisoned him, and placed his cousin Mustafa on the throne as Mustafa IV.
Sultan Suleyman I (1494-1566), also known as 'Suleyman the Magnificent' and 'Suleyman the Lawmaker', was the 10th and longest reigning sultan of the Ottoman empire.<br/><br/>He personally led his armies to conquer Transylvania, the Caspian, much of the Middle East and the Maghreb. He intoduced sweeping reforms in Turkish legislation, education, taxation and criminal law, and was highly respected as a poet and a goldsmith. Suleyman also oversaw a golden age in the development of arts, literature and architecture in the Ottoman empire.
Mehmed VI (Ottoman Turkish: محمد سادس Meḥmed-i sâdis, وحيد الدين Vahideddin. Turkish: Vahideddin or VI. Mehmed) (14 January 1861 – 16 May 1926) was the 36th and last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning from 1918 to 1922.<br/><br/> The brother of Mehmed V, he succeeded to the throne as the eldest male member of the House of Osman after the 1916 suicide of Abdülaziz's son Yusuf Izzettin Efendi, the heir to the throne. He was girded with the Sword of Osman on 4 June 1918, as the thirty-sixth padishah. His father was Sultan Abdülmecid I and mother was Gülüstü (1831 – May 1861), an ethnic Abkhazian, daughter of Prince Tahir Bey Çaçba and his wife Afişe Lakerba, originally named Fatma Çaçba.<br/><br/> Mehmed was removed from the throne when the Ottoman sultanate was abolished in 1922.
Selim II (Ottoman Turkish: سليم ثانى Selīm-i sānī; 28 May 1524 – 12 December/15 December 1574), also known as 'Selim the Sot' and as 'Sarı Selim' (Selim the Blond), was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1566 until his death in 1574.
Sultan Suleyman I (1494-1566), also known as 'Suleyman the Magnificent' and 'Suleyman the Lawmaker', was the 10th and longest reigning sultan of the Ottoman empire.<br/><br/>He personally led his armies to conquer Transylvania, the Caspian, much of the Middle East and the Maghreb. He intoduced sweeping reforms in Turkish legislation, education, taxation and criminal law, and was highly respected as a poet and a goldsmith. Suleyman also oversaw a golden age in the development of arts, literature and architecture in the Ottoman empire.
Selim III (Ottoman Turkish: سليم ثالث Selīm-i sālis) (24 December 1761 – 28 or 29 July 1808) was the reform-minded Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807. The Janissaries eventually deposed and imprisoned him, and placed his cousin Mustafa on the throne as Mustafa IV.
Sultan Suleyman I (1494-1566), also known as 'Suleyman the Magnificent' and 'Suleyman the Lawmaker', was the 10th and longest reigning sultan of the Ottoman empire.<br/><br/>He personally led his armies to conquer Transylvania, the Caspian, much of the Middle East and the Maghreb. He intoduced sweeping reforms in Turkish legislation, education, taxation and criminal law, and was highly respected as a poet and a goldsmith. Suleyman also oversaw a golden age in the development of arts, literature and architecture in the Ottoman empire.
Zanzibar (from Arabic: زنجبار‎ Zanjibār, from Persian: زنگبار‎ Zangibār'Coast of Blacks'; zangi [black-skinned] + bār [coast]) is a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania in East Africa. It is composed of the Zanzibar Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, 25–50 kilometres (16–31 mi) off the coast of the mainland, and consists of numerous small islands and two large ones: Unguja (the main island, referred to informally as Zanzibar), and Pemba.<br/><br/> The capital of Zanzibar, located on the island of Unguja, is Zanzibar City. Its historic centre, known as Stone Town, is a World Heritage Site and is claimed to be the only functioning ancient town in East Africa.<br/><br/> Zanzibar's main industries are spices, raffia, and tourism. In particular, the islands produce cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, and black pepper. For this reason, the islands, together with Tanzania's Mafia Island, are sometimes called the Spice Islands (a term also associated with the Maluku Islands in Indonesia).
Selim II (Ottoman Turkish: سليم ثانى Selīm-i sānī; 28 May 1524 – 12 December/15 December 1574), also known as 'Selim the Sot' and as 'Sarı Selim' (Selim the Blond), was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1566 until his death in 1574.
Sultan Suleyman I (1494-1566), also known as 'Suleyman the Magnificent' and 'Suleyman the Lawmaker', was the 10th and longest reigning sultan of the Ottoman empire.<br/><br/>He personally led his armies to conquer Transylvania, the Caspian, much of the Middle East and the Maghreb. He intoduced sweeping reforms in Turkish legislation, education, taxation and criminal law, and was highly respected as a poet and a goldsmith. Suleyman also oversaw a golden age in the development of arts, literature and architecture in the Ottoman empire.
Selim III (Ottoman Turkish: سليم ثالث Selīm-i sālis) (24 December 1761 – 28 or 29 July 1808) was the reform-minded Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807. The Janissaries eventually deposed and imprisoned him, and placed his cousin Mustafa on the throne as Mustafa IV.
Selim I, Yavuz Sultân Selim Khan, Hâdim-ül Haramain-ish Sharifain (Servant of the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina), nicknamed Yavuz 'the Stern' or 'the Steadfast', but often rendered in English as 'the Grim' (October 10, 1465/1466/1470 – September 22, 1520), was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1512 to 1520.<br/><br/>He was also the first Ottoman Sultan to assume the title of Caliph of Islam. He was granted the title of 'Hâdim ül Haramain ish Sharifain' (Servant of the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina), by the Sharif of Mecca in 1517.<br/><br/>Selim carried the empire to the leadership of the Sunni branch of Islam by his conquest of the Middle East. He represents a sudden change in the expansion policy of the empire, which had worked mostly against the West before his reign. The Ottoman Empire almost trebled in size during Selim's relatively short reign.
Zanzibar (from Arabic: زنجبار‎ Zanjibār, from Persian: زنگبار‎ Zangibār'Coast of Blacks'; zangi [black-skinned] + bār [coast]) is a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania in East Africa. It is composed of the Zanzibar Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, 25–50 kilometres (16–31 mi) off the coast of the mainland, and consists of numerous small islands and two large ones: Unguja (the main island, referred to informally as Zanzibar), and Pemba.<br/><br/> The capital of Zanzibar, located on the island of Unguja, is Zanzibar City. Its historic centre, known as Stone Town, is a World Heritage Site and is claimed to be the only functioning ancient town in East Africa.<br/><br/> Zanzibar's main industries are spices, raffia, and tourism. In particular, the islands produce cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, and black pepper. For this reason, the islands, together with Tanzania's Mafia Island, are sometimes called the Spice Islands (a term also associated with the Maluku Islands in Indonesia).
Selim III (Ottoman Turkish: سليم ثالث Selīm-i sālis) (24 December 1761 – 28 or 29 July 1808) was the reform-minded Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807. The Janissaries eventually deposed and imprisoned him, and placed his cousin Mustafa on the throne as Mustafa IV.
Selim I, Yavuz Sultân Selim Khan, Hâdim-ül Haramain-ish Sharifain (Servant of the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina), nicknamed Yavuz 'the Stern' or 'the Steadfast', but often rendered in English as 'the Grim' (October 10, 1465/1466/1470 – September 22, 1520), was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1512 to 1520.<br/><br/>He was also the first Ottoman Sultan to assume the title of Caliph of Islam. He was granted the title of 'Hâdim ül Haramain ish Sharifain' (Servant of the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina), by the Sharif of Mecca in 1517.<br/><br/>Selim carried the empire to the leadership of the Sunni branch of Islam by his conquest of the Middle East. He represents a sudden change in the expansion policy of the empire, which had worked mostly against the West before his reign. The Ottoman Empire almost trebled in size during Selim's relatively short reign.
Zanzibar (from Arabic: زنجبار‎ Zanjibār, from Persian: زنگبار‎ Zangibār'Coast of Blacks'; zangi [black-skinned] + bār [coast]) is a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania in East Africa. It is composed of the Zanzibar Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, 25–50 kilometres (16–31 mi) off the coast of the mainland, and consists of numerous small islands and two large ones: Unguja (the main island, referred to informally as Zanzibar), and Pemba.<br/><br/> The capital of Zanzibar, located on the island of Unguja, is Zanzibar City. Its historic centre, known as Stone Town, is a World Heritage Site and is claimed to be the only functioning ancient town in East Africa.<br/><br/> Zanzibar's main industries are spices, raffia, and tourism. In particular, the islands produce cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, and black pepper. For this reason, the islands, together with Tanzania's Mafia Island, are sometimes called the Spice Islands (a term also associated with the Maluku Islands in Indonesia).
Mustafa III (January 28, 1717 – January 21, 1774) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1757 to 1774. He was a son of Sultan Ahmed III (1703–30) and was succeeded by his brother Abdul Hamid I (1774–89). An energetic and perceptive ruler, Mustafa III sought to modernize the army and the internal state machinery to bring his empire in line with the Powers of Europe. Unfortunately the Ottoman state had declined so far that any general attempts at modernization were but a drop in the ocean, while any major plans to change the administrative status quo immediately roused the conservative Janissaries and imams to the point of rebellion.<br/><br/> Mustafa III did secure the services of foreign generals to initiate a reform of the infantry and artillery. The Sultan also ordered the founding of Academies for Mathematics, Navigation and the Sciences. Well aware of his own military weakness, Mustafa III assiduously avoided war and was powerless to prevent the annexation of the Crimea by Catherine II of Russia (1762–96). However this action, combined with further Russian aggression in Poland compelled Mustafa III to declare war on Russia shortly before his death. He died at Topkapi Palace, Istanbul.
Selim I, Yavuz Sultân Selim Khan, Hâdim-ül Haramain-ish Sharifain (Servant of the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina), nicknamed Yavuz 'the Stern' or 'the Steadfast', but often rendered in English as 'the Grim' (October 10, 1465/1466/1470 – September 22, 1520), was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1512 to 1520.<br/><br/> He was also the first Ottoman Sultan to assume the title of Caliph of Islam. He was granted the title of 'Hâdim ül Haramain ish Sharifain' (Servant of the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina), by the Sharif of Mecca in 1517.<br/><br/> Selim carried the empire to the leadership of the Sunni branch of Islam by his conquest of the Middle East. He represents a sudden change in the expansion policy of the empire, which had worked mostly against the West before his reign. The Ottoman Empire almost trebled in size during Selim's relatively short reign.
The Shahi (Devanagari: शाही), also called Shahiya dynasties ruled one of the middle kingdoms of India which included portions of the Kabulistan and the old province of Gandhara (now in northern Pakistan), from the decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century to the early 9th century.<br/><br/> The kingdom was known as 'Kabul Shahi' (Kabul-shāhān or Ratbél-shāhān in Persian کابلشاهان یا رتبیل شاهان) between 565 and 879 CE when they had Kapisa and Kabul as their capitals, and later as Hindu Shahi.<br/><br/> The Shahis of Kabul / Gandhara are generally divided into the two eras of the so-called Buddhist-Shahis and the so-called Hindu-Shahis, with the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around 870 CE.
The Ottoman imperial decree – firman – consists of the decree itself, frequently written in the chancellery script, Divani, with the signatures of the officials below and the signature of the ruling sultan in the form of an intricate tughra above.
In 1258 Hulagu invaded the Abbasid domain, comprising a little more than what is now Iraq and Syria. Baghdad was sacked on February 10 and Caliph Al-Mustasim was killed by Hulagu Khan soon afterwards. It is believed that the Mongols did not want to shed 'royal blood', so they wrapped him in a rug and trampled him to death with their horses.<br/><br/> Marco Polo reports that upon finding the caliph's great stores of treasure which could have been spent on the defense of his realm, Hulagu Khan locked him in his treasure room without food or water, telling him 'eat of thy treasure as much as thou wilt, since thou art so fond of it'.
Sultan Suleyman I (1494-1566), also known as 'Suleyman the Magnificent' and 'Suleyman the Lawmaker', was the 10th and longest reigning sultan of the Ottoman empire.<br/><br/>He personally led his armies to conquer Transylvania, the Caspian, much of the Middle East and the Maghreb. He intoduced sweeping reforms in Turkish legislation, education, taxation and criminal law, and was highly respected as a poet and a goldsmith. Suleyman also oversaw a golden age in the development of arts, literature and architecture in the Ottoman empire.