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Aleppo's Great Bazaar (in Arabic, <i>suq</i> or <i>souq</i>) as we know it today was rebuilt first by the Egyptian Mamelukes who drove out the Mongols, and then, after 1516, by the Turks who incorporated Aleppo into the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> During the Syrian Civil War, which started in 2011, Aleppo's historic <i>suqs</i> suffered serious damage.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
Aleppo's Great Bazaar (in Arabic, <i>suq</i> or <i>souq</i>) as we know it today was rebuilt first by the Egyptian Mamelukes who drove out the Mongols, and then, after 1516, by the Turks who incorporated Aleppo into the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> During the Syrian Civil War, which started in 2011, Aleppo's historic <i>suqs</i> suffered serious damage.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
Aleppo's Great Bazaar (in Arabic, <i>suq</i> or <i>souq</i>) as we know it today was rebuilt first by the Egyptian Mamelukes who drove out the Mongols, and then, after 1516, by the Turks who incorporated Aleppo into the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> During the Syrian Civil War, which started in 2011, Aleppo's historic <i>suqs</i> suffered serious damage.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
Aleppo's Great Bazaar (in Arabic, <i>suq</i> or <i>souq</i>) as we know it today was rebuilt first by the Egyptian Mamelukes who drove out the Mongols, and then, after 1516, by the Turks who incorporated Aleppo into the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> During the Syrian Civil War, which started in 2011, Aleppo's historic <i>suqs</i> suffered serious damage.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
Aleppo's Great Bazaar (in Arabic, <i>suq</i> or <i>souq</i>) as we know it today was rebuilt first by the Egyptian Mamelukes who drove out the Mongols, and then, after 1516, by the Turks who incorporated Aleppo into the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> During the Syrian Civil War, which started in 2011, Aleppo's historic <i>suqs</i> suffered serious damage.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
Aleppo's Great Bazaar (in Arabic, <i>suq</i> or <i>souq</i>) as we know it today was rebuilt first by the Egyptian Mamelukes who drove out the Mongols, and then, after 1516, by the Turks who incorporated Aleppo into the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> During the Syrian Civil War, which started in 2011, Aleppo's historic <i>suqs</i> suffered serious damage.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
The Citadel of Aleppo is a large medieval fortified palace in the centre of the old city of Aleppo, northern Syria. It is considered to be one of the oldest and largest castles in the world. Usage of the Citadel hill dates back at least to the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE. Subsequently occupied by many civilizations including the Greeks, Byzantines, Ayyubids and Mamelukes, the majority of the construction as it stands today is thought to originate from the Ayyubid period.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
The Citadel of Aleppo is a large medieval fortified palace in the centre of the old city of Aleppo, northern Syria. It is considered to be one of the oldest and largest castles in the world. Usage of the Citadel hill dates back at least to the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE. Subsequently occupied by many civilizations including the Greeks, Byzantines, Ayyubids and Mamelukes, the majority of the construction as it stands today is thought to originate from the Ayyubid period.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
The Citadel of Aleppo is a large medieval fortified palace in the centre of the old city of Aleppo, northern Syria. It is considered to be one of the oldest and largest castles in the world. Usage of the Citadel hill dates back at least to the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE. Subsequently occupied by many civilizations including the Greeks, Byzantines, Ayyubids and Mamelukes, the majority of the construction as it stands today is thought to originate from the Ayyubid period.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
The Citadel of Aleppo is a large medieval fortified palace in the centre of the old city of Aleppo, northern Syria. It is considered to be one of the oldest and largest castles in the world. Usage of the Citadel hill dates back at least to the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE. Subsequently occupied by many civilizations including the Greeks, Byzantines, Ayyubids and Mamelukes, the majority of the construction as it stands today is thought to originate from the Ayyubid period.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
The Citadel of Aleppo is a large medieval fortified palace in the centre of the old city of Aleppo, northern Syria. It is considered to be one of the oldest and largest castles in the world. Usage of the Citadel hill dates back at least to the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE. Subsequently occupied by many civilizations including the Greeks, Byzantines, Ayyubids and Mamelukes, the majority of the construction as it stands today is thought to originate from the Ayyubid period.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
The Citadel of Aleppo is a large medieval fortified palace in the centre of the old city of Aleppo, northern Syria. It is considered to be one of the oldest and largest castles in the world. Usage of the Citadel hill dates back at least to the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE. Subsequently occupied by many civilizations including the Greeks, Byzantines, Ayyubids and Mamelukes, the majority of the construction as it stands today is thought to originate from the Ayyubid period.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
Aleppo's Great Bazaar (in Arabic, suq or souq) as we know it today was rebuilt first by the Egyptian Mamelukes who drove out the Mongols, and then, after 1516, by the Turks who incorporated Aleppo into the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> During the Syrian Civil War, which started in 2011, Aleppo's historic suqs suffered serious damage.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
Aleppo's Great Bazaar (in Arabic, <i>suq</i> or <i>souq</i>) as we know it today was rebuilt first by the Egyptian Mamelukes who drove out the Mongols, and then, after 1516, by the Turks who incorporated Aleppo into the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> During the Syrian Civil War, which started in 2011, Aleppo's historic <i>suqs</i> suffered serious damage.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
Aleppo's Great Bazaar (in Arabic, <i>suq</i> or <i>souq</i>) as we know it today was rebuilt first by the Egyptian Mamelukes who drove out the Mongols, and then, after 1516, by the Turks who incorporated Aleppo into the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> During the Syrian Civil War, which started in 2011, Aleppo's historic <i>suqs</i> suffered serious damage.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
Aleppo's Great Bazaar (in Arabic, <i>suq</i> or <i>souq</i>) as we know it today was rebuilt first by the Egyptian Mamelukes who drove out the Mongols, and then, after 1516, by the Turks who incorporated Aleppo into the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> During the Syrian Civil War, which started in 2011, Aleppo's historic <i>suqs</i> suffered serious damage.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
Aleppo's Great Bazaar (in Arabic, <i>suq</i> or <i>souq</i>) as we know it today was rebuilt first by the Egyptian Mamelukes who drove out the Mongols, and then, after 1516, by the Turks who incorporated Aleppo into the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> During the Syrian Civil War, which started in 2011, Aleppo's historic <i>suqs</i> suffered serious damage.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
The Citadel of Aleppo is a large medieval fortified palace in the centre of the old city of Aleppo, northern Syria. It is considered to be one of the oldest and largest castles in the world. Usage of the Citadel hill dates back at least to the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE. Subsequently occupied by many civilizations including the Greeks, Byzantines, Ayyubids and Mamelukes, the majority of the construction as it stands today is thought to originate from the Ayyubid period.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
In 1266, while their father King Hetoum I of Armenia was away to visit the Mongol court, Leo and his younger brother Thoros fought to repel Mamluk invaders, at the Battle of Mari. Thoros was killed in combat, and Leo, along with 40,000 other Armenian soldiers was captured and imprisoned.<br/><br/> When King Hetoum returned, he paid a large ransom to retrieve his son, including a large quantity of money, handing over several fortresses, and accepting to intercede with the Mongol ruler Abagha in order to have one of Mamluk Amir Baibars's relatives freed.
The Citadel of Aleppo is a large medieval fortified palace in the centre of the old city of Aleppo, northern Syria. It is considered to be one of the oldest and largest castles in the world. Usage of the Citadel hill dates back at least to the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE. Subsequently occupied by many civilizations including the Greeks, Byzantines, Ayyubids and Mamelukes, the majority of the construction as it stands today is thought to originate from the Ayyubid period.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
The Citadel of Aleppo is a large medieval fortified palace in the centre of the old city of Aleppo, northern Syria. It is considered to be one of the oldest and largest castles in the world. Usage of the Citadel hill dates back at least to the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE. Subsequently occupied by many civilizations including the Greeks, Byzantines, Ayyubids and Mamelukes, the majority of the construction as it stands today is thought to originate from the Ayyubid period.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
Aleppo's Great Bazaar (in Arabic, <i>suq</i> or <i>souq</i>) as we know it today was rebuilt first by the Egyptian Mamelukes who drove out the Mongols, and then, after 1516, by the Turks who incorporated Aleppo into the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> During the Syrian Civil War, which started in 2011, Aleppo's historic <i>suqs</i> suffered serious damage.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
Aleppo's Great Bazaar (in Arabic, suq or souq) as we know it today was rebuilt first by the Egyptian Mamelukes who drove out the Mongols, and then, after 1516, by the Turks who incorporated Aleppo into the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BC. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
Aleppo's Great Bazaar (in Arabic, suq or souq) as we know it today was rebuilt first by the Egyptian Mamelukes who drove out the Mongols, and then, after 1516, by the Turks who incorporated Aleppo into the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BC. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
Aleppo's Great Bazaar (in Arabic, <i>suq</i> or <i>souq</i>) as we know it today was rebuilt first by the Egyptian Mamelukes who drove out the Mongols, and then, after 1516, by the Turks who incorporated Aleppo into the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> During the Syrian Civil War, which started in 2011, Aleppo's historic <i>suqs</i> suffered serious damage.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
Aleppo's Great Bazaar (in Arabic, <i>suq</i> or <i>souq</i>) as we know it today was rebuilt first by the Egyptian Mamelukes who drove out the Mongols, and then, after 1516, by the Turks who incorporated Aleppo into the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> During the Syrian Civil War, which started in 2011, Aleppo's historic <i>suqs</i> suffered serious damage.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
The Citadel of Aleppo is a large medieval fortified palace in the centre of the old city of Aleppo, northern Syria. It is considered to be one of the oldest and largest castles in the world. Usage of the Citadel hill dates back at least to the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE. Subsequently occupied by many civilizations including the Greeks, Byzantines, Ayyubids and Mamelukes, the majority of the construction as it stands today is thought to originate from the Ayyubid period.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
The Citadel of Aleppo is a large medieval fortified palace in the centre of the old city of Aleppo, northern Syria. It is considered to be one of the oldest and largest castles in the world. Usage of the Citadel hill dates back at least to the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE. Subsequently occupied by many civilizations including the Greeks, Byzantines, Ayyubids and Mamelukes, the majority of the construction as it stands today is thought to originate from the Ayyubid period.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
Aleppo's Great Bazaar (in Arabic, <i>suq</i> or <i>souq</i>) as we know it today was rebuilt first by the Egyptian Mamelukes who drove out the Mongols, and then, after 1516, by the Turks who incorporated Aleppo into the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> During the Syrian Civil War, which started in 2011, Aleppo's historic <i>suqs</i> suffered serious damage.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
Aleppo's Great Bazaar (in Arabic, <i>suq</i> or <i>souq</i>) as we know it today was rebuilt first by the Egyptian Mamelukes who drove out the Mongols, and then, after 1516, by the Turks who incorporated Aleppo into the Ottoman Empire.<br/><br/> During the Syrian Civil War, which started in 2011, Aleppo's historic <i>suqs</i> suffered serious damage.<br/><br/> Aleppo, the second city of Syria and quite possibly the longest continually inhabited settlement in the world, is of venerable age. So old, indeed, that its Arabic name, Halab, is first mentioned in Semitic texts of the third millennium BCE. Situated in the north-west of the country, just a few kilometres from the Turkish frontier, Aleppo is located at the confluence of several great trade routes and, as a city of commerce, has always been rich.
The Nihāyat al-su’l wa-al-umniyah fī ta‘allum a‘māl al-furūsīyah نـهـايـة الـسـؤل و الأمـنـيـة في تـعـلـّم أعـمـال الـفـروسـيـة by Muḥammad ibn ‘Īsá Aqsarā’ī الأقـسـرائـي ، مـحـمـد بن عـيـسـى is one of the best known works of cavalry training from the Islamic Middle East.<br/><br/> It was compiled during the time of the Mamluk Sultanate (1250-1517), however, most of the book consists of material from earlier works. Some date back to the time of the 'Abbasid Caliphs of Baghdad in the 9th or even late 8th century. The Nihayat al-Su'l itself was compiled following an attack upon Alexandria by Crusader pirates operating from Cyprus in 1365. By that time, however, the Crusaders were a secondary threat as far as the Mamluks were concerned. The Mongols who occupied most of Asia beyond the Euphrates were much more serious.<br/><br/> Traditionally the Nihayat al-Su'l is attributed to Muhammad ibn 'Isa al-Hanafi al-Aqsara'i who is said to have died in Damascus in 1348 after spending most of his life in Syria.
The Nihāyat al-su’l wa-al-umniyah fī ta‘allum a‘māl al-furūsīyah نـهـايـة الـسـؤل و الأمـنـيـة في تـعـلـّم أعـمـال الـفـروسـيـة by Muḥammad ibn ‘Īsá Aqsarā’ī الأقـسـرائـي ، مـحـمـد بن عـيـسـى is one of the best known works of cavalry training from the Islamic Middle East.<br/><br/> It was compiled during the time of the Mamluk Sultanate (1250-1517), however, most of the book consists of material from earlier works. Some date back to the time of the 'Abbasid Caliphs of Baghdad in the 9th or even late 8th century. The Nihayat al-Su'l itself was compiled following an attack upon Alexandria by Crusader pirates operating from Cyprus in 1365. By that time, however, the Crusaders were a secondary threat as far as the Mamluks were concerned. The Mongols who occupied most of Asia beyond the Euphrates were much more serious.<br/><br/> Traditionally the Nihayat al-Su'l is attributed to Muhammad ibn 'Isa al-Hanafi al-Aqsara'i who is said to have died in Damascus in 1348 after spending most of his life in Syria.