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Korea: Hong Daeyong (1731 - 1783), philosopher, astronomer and mathematician during the late Joseon Kingdom (1392 - 1897). Also known as Damheon, Hong was an early promoter of Korean industrialization and the development of trade by using Western technologies.
Sir Isaac Newton PRS MP (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726) was an English physicist and mathematician (described in his own day as a 'natural philosopher') who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and as a key figure in the scientific revolution.<br/><br/> His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ('Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy'), first published in 1687, laid the foundations for classical mechanics. Newton made seminal contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of calculus.
Johannes Kepler (December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630) was a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution, he is best known for his laws of planetary motion, based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. These works also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation.<br/><br/> During his career, Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz, Austria, where he became an associate of Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg. Later he became an assistant to astronomer Tycho Brahe, and eventually the imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II and his two successors Matthias and Ferdinand II. He was also a mathematics teacher in Linz, Austria, and an adviser to General Wallenstein. Additionally, he did fundamental work in the field of optics, invented an improved version of the refracting telescope (the Keplerian Telescope), and mentioned the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo Galilei.
Poland: Engraved portrait of Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish astronomer and mathematician, c. 1850. Nicolaus Copernicus (19 February 1473 - 24 May 1543) was a Renaissance astronomer and mathematician from Royal Prussia, part of the Kingdom of Poland. Copernicus was a polyglot and polymath, and obtained a doctorate in canon law. Throughout his life, he served also as a governor, diplomat, economist, physician, translator and classic scholar.
Halley's Comet or Comet Halley is a short-period comet visible from Earth every 75–76 years. Halley is the only short-period comet that is clearly visible to the naked eye from Earth, and the only naked-eye comet that might appear twice in a human lifetime. Halley last appeared in the inner Solar System in 1986 and will next appear in mid-2061.
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (30 April 1777 – 23 February 1855) was a German mathematician who contributed significantly to many fields, including number theory, algebra, statistics, analysis, differential geometry, geodesy, geophysics, mechanics, electrostatics, astronomy, matrix theory, and optics.<br/><br/> Sometimes referred to as the <i>Princeps mathematicorum</i> (Latin, 'the foremost of mathematicians') and the 'greatest mathematician since antiquity', Gauss had an exceptional influence in many fields of mathematics and science and is ranked as one of history's most influential mathematicians.
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 1452 – 2 May 1519) was an Italian polymath, painter, sculptor, architect, musician, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist, and writer. He is widely considered to be one of the greatest painters of all time and perhaps the most diversely talented person ever to have lived.<br/><br/> His genius, perhaps more than that of any other figure, epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal. Leonardo has often been described as the archetype of the Renaissance Man.
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 1452 – 2 May 1519) was an Italian polymath, painter, sculptor, architect, musician, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist, and writer. He is widely considered to be one of the greatest painters of all time and perhaps the most diversely talented person ever to have lived.<br/><br/> His genius, perhaps more than that of any other figure, epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal. Leonardo has often been described as the archetype of the Renaissance Man.
Galileo Galilei (15 Feb. 1564—8 Jan. 1642) was an Italian physicist, mathematician, philosopher and astronomer who played a pivotal role in establishing modern science at a time when contradiction of religion was considered heresy. It was as an astronomer that he was most controversial. Galileo developed telescopes that confirmed the phases of Venus, and the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), as well as sunspots.<br/><br/> In 1610, while a majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric opinion that the Earth was the centre of the universe, Galileo came out in support of Copernicus' heliocentric view that the Sun was at the center of the solar system.<br/><br/> Galileo's opinions were met with outrage and bitter opposition, and he was denounced to the Roman Inquisition. In February 1616, although he had been cleared of any offence, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as 'false and contrary to [Christian] Scripture' and forced Galileo to renounce his scientific conclusions.<br/><br/> However, in 1632, Galileo published 'Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems', in which he again defended heliocentrism. He was tried by the Inquisition, found 'vehemently suspect of heresy', forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 1452 – 2 May 1519) was an Italian polymath, painter, sculptor, architect, musician, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist, and writer. He is widely considered to be one of the greatest painters of all time and perhaps the most diversely talented person ever to have lived.<br/><br/> His genius, perhaps more than that of any other figure, epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal. Leonardo has often been described as the archetype of the Renaissance Man.
Johannes Kepler (December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630) was a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution, he is best known for his laws of planetary motion, based on his works <i>Astronomia nova</i>, <i>Harmonices Mundi</i>, and <i>Epitome of Copernican Astronomy</i>. These works also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation.<br/><br/> During his career, Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz, Austria, where he became an associate of Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg. Later he became an assistant to astronomer Tycho Brahe, and eventually the imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II and his two successors Matthias and Ferdinand II. He was also a mathematics teacher in Linz, Austria, and an adviser to General Wallenstein. Additionally, he did fundamental work in the field of optics, invented an improved version of the refracting telescope (the Keplerian Telescope), and mentioned the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo Galilei.
Albrecht Durer (21 May 1471 – 6 April 1528) was a painter, printmaker and theorist of the German Renaissance. Born in Nuremberg, Durer established his reputation and influence across Europe when he was still in his twenties, due to his high-quality woodcut prints. He was in communication with the major Italian artists of his time, including Raphael, Giovanni Bellini and Leonardo da Vinci, and from 1512 he was patronized by emperor Maximilian I.<br/><br/> His vast body of work includes engravings, his preferred technique in his later prints, altarpieces, portraits and self-portraits, watercolours and books. The woodcuts, such as the Apocalypse series (1498), retain a more Gothic flavour than the rest of his work. His well-known engravings include the Knight, Death, and the Devil (1513), Saint Jerome in his Study (1514) and Melencolia I (1514), which has been the subject of extensive analysis and interpretation. His watercolours also mark him as one of the first European landscape artists, while his ambitious woodcuts revolutionized the potential of that medium.<br/><br/> Dürer's introduction of classical motifs into Northern art, through his knowledge of Italian artists and German humanists, has secured his reputation as one of the most important figures of the Northern Renaissance. This is reinforced by his theoretical treatises, which involve principles of mathematics, perspective and ideal proportions.
René Descartes ( 31 March 1596 – 11 February 1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician and scientist who spent most of his life in the Dutch Republic.<br/><br/> He has been dubbed the father of modern philosophy, and much subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day. In particular, his <i>Meditations on First Philosophy</i> continues to be a standard text at most university philosophy departments. Descartes' influence in mathematics is equally apparent; the Cartesian coordinate system — allowing reference to a point in space as a set of numbers, and allowing algebraic equations to be expressed as geometric shapes in a two-dimensional coordinate system (and conversely, shapes to be described as equations) — was named after him.<br/><br/> He is credited as the father of analytical geometry, the bridge between algebra and geometry, crucial to the discovery of infinitesimal calculus and analysis. Descartes was also one of the key figures in the scientific revolution and has been described as an example of genius.
Halley's Comet or Comet Halley is a short-period comet visible from Earth every 75–76 years. Halley is the only short-period comet that is clearly visible to the naked eye from Earth, and the only naked-eye comet that might appear twice in a human lifetime. Halley last appeared in the inner Solar System in 1986 and will next appear in mid-2061.
Galileo Galilei (15 Feb. 1564—8 Jan. 1642) was an Italian physicist, mathematician, philosopher and astronomer who played a pivotal role in establishing modern science at a time when contradiction of religion was considered heresy. It was as an astronomer that he was most controversial. Galileo developed telescopes that confirmed the phases of Venus, and the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), as well as sunspots.<br/><br/> In 1610, while a majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric opinion that the Earth was the centre of the universe, Galileo came out in support of Copernicus' heliocentric view that the Sun was at the center of the solar system.<br/><br/> Galileo's opinions were met with outrage and bitter opposition, and he was denounced to the Roman Inquisition. In February 1616, although he had been cleared of any offence, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as 'false and contrary to [Christian] Scripture' and forced Galileo to renounce his scientific conclusions.<br/><br/> However, in 1632, Galileo published 'Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems', in which he again defended heliocentrism. He was tried by the Inquisition, found 'vehemently suspect of heresy', forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Pythagoras the Samian was an Ionian Greek philosopher, mathematician, and founder of the religious movement called Pythagoreanism. Most of the information about Pythagoras was written down centuries after he lived, so very little reliable information is known about him. He was born on the island of Samos, and might have travelled widely in his youth, visiting Egypt and other places seeking knowledge.<br/><br/> Pythagoras made influential contributions to philosophy and religion in the late 6th century BCE. He is often revered as a great mathematician, mystic, and scientist and is best known for the Pythagorean theorem which bears his name.
Nicolaus Copernicus (German: Nikolaus Kopernikus; 19 February 1473 – 24 May 1543) was a Renaissance mathematician and astronomer who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than the Earth at its center. The publication of this model in his book <i>De revolutionibus orbium coelestium</i> (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) just before his death in 1543 is considered a major event in the history of science, triggering the Copernican Revolution and making an important contribution to the Scientific Revolution.<br/><br/> Copernicus was born and died in Royal Prussia, a region that had been a part of the Kingdom of Poland since 1466. He was a polyglot and polymath, obtaining a doctorate in canon law and also practising as a physician, classics scholar, translator, governor, diplomat and economist.
Pythagoras the Samian was an Ionian Greek philosopher, mathematician, and founder of the religious movement called Pythagoreanism. Most of the information about Pythagoras was written down centuries after he lived, so very little reliable information is known about him. He was born on the island of Samos, and might have travelled widely in his youth, visiting Egypt and other places seeking knowledge.<br/><br/> Pythagoras made influential contributions to philosophy and religion in the late 6th century BCE. He is often revered as a great mathematician, mystic, and scientist and is best known for the Pythagorean theorem which bears his name.
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 1452 – 2 May 1519) was an Italian polymath, painter, sculptor, architect, musician, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist, and writer. He is widely considered to be one of the greatest painters of all time and perhaps the most diversely talented person ever to have lived.<br/><br/> The Vitruvian Man is a drawing by Leonardo da Vinci around 1490. It is accompanied by notes based on the work of the architect Vitruvius. The drawing, which is in pen and ink on paper, depicts a man in two superimposed positions with his arms and legs apart and inscribed in a circle and square. The drawing and text are sometimes called the Canon of Proportions or, less often, Proportions of Man.<br/><br/> The drawing is based on the correlations of ideal human proportions with geometry described by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius in Book III of his treatise De Architectura. Vitruvius described the human figure as being the principal source of proportion among the Classical orders of architecture. Vitruvius determined that the ideal body should be eight heads high. Leonardo's drawing is traditionally named in honor of the architect.
Sir Isaac Newton PRS MP (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726) was an English physicist and mathematician (described in his own day as a 'natural philosopher') who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and as a key figure in the scientific revolution.<br/><br/> His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ('Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy'), first published in 1687, laid the foundations for classical mechanics. Newton made seminal contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of calculus.
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Latin for 'Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy', often referred to as simply the Principia, is a work in three books by Sir Isaac Newton, in Latin, first published 5 July 1687.<br/><br/> After annotating and correcting his personal copy of the first edition, Newton also published two further editions, in 1713 and 1726. The Principia states Newton's laws of motion, forming the foundation of classical mechanics, also Newton's law of universal gravitation, and a derivation of Kepler's laws of planetary motion (which Kepler first obtained empirically).<br/><br/> The Principia is 'justly regarded as one of the most important works in the history of science'.
Francois-Marie Arouet (21 November 1694 - 30 May 1778), more commonly known by his <i>nom de plume</i> Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment historian, philosopher and writer. He was famous for his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of speech and separation of church and state, often attacking the Catholic Church through his wit and writings.<br/><br/> Voltaire was a prolific and versatile writer, with more than 20,000 letters and over 2,000 books and pamphlets to his name, as well as plays, poems, essays and historical and scientific works. Despite the strict censorship laws of the time, Voltaire often spoke up in favour of civil liberties, and regularly used satire to criticise intolerance, religious dogma and other pillars of French institutions of his day.
Leonhard Euler (15 April 1707 – 18 September 1783) was a Swiss mathematician, physicist, astronomer, logician and engineer who made important and influential discoveries in many branches of mathematics like infinitesimal calculus and graph theory, while also making pioneering contributions to several branches such as topology and analytic number theory. He also introduced much of the modern mathematical terminology and notation, particularly for mathematical analysis, such as the notion of a mathematical function. He is also known for his work in mechanics, fluid dynamics, optics, astronomy, and music theory.<br/><br/> Euler was one of the most eminent mathematicians of the 18th century, and is held to be one of the greatest in history. He is also widely considered to be the most prolific mathematician of all time. His collected works fill 60 to 80 quarto volumes, more than anybody in the field. He spent most of his adult life in St. Petersburg, Russia, and in Berlin, then the capital of Prussia.
Sir Isaac Newton PRS MP (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726) was an English physicist and mathematician (described in his own day as a 'natural philosopher') who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and as a key figure in the scientific revolution.<br/><br/> His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ('Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy'), first published in 1687, laid the foundations for classical mechanics. Newton made seminal contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of calculus.
A color wheel or color circle is an abstract illustrative organization of color hues around a circle that shows relationships between primary colors, secondary colors, tertiary colors, etc.
Maria Gaetana Agnesi (16 May 1718 – 9 January 1799) was an Italian mathematician, philosopher, theologian, and humanitarian. She was the first woman to write a mathematics handbook and the first woman appointed as a mathematics professor at a university.<br/><br/> The most valuable result of her labours was the <i>Instituzioni analitiche ad uso della gioventù italiana</i>, (Analytical Institutions for the Use of Italian Youth) which was published in Milan in 1748. The goal of this work was, according to Agnesi herself, to give a systematic illustration of the different results and theorems of infinitesimal calculus.
Leonhard Euler (15 April 1707 – 18 September 1783) was a Swiss mathematician, physicist, astronomer, logician and engineer who made important and influential discoveries in many branches of mathematics like infinitesimal calculus and graph theory, while also making pioneering contributions to several branches such as topology and analytic number theory. He also introduced much of the modern mathematical terminology and notation, particularly for mathematical analysis, such as the notion of a mathematical function. He is also known for his work in mechanics, fluid dynamics, optics, astronomy, and music theory.<br/><br/> Euler was one of the most eminent mathematicians of the 18th century, and is held to be one of the greatest in history. He is also widely considered to be the most prolific mathematician of all time. His collected works fill 60 to 80 quarto volumes, more than anybody in the field. He spent most of his adult life in St. Petersburg, Russia, and in Berlin, then the capital of Prussia.
Sir Isaac Newton PRS MP (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726) was an English physicist and mathematician (described in his own day as a 'natural philosopher') who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and as a key figure in the scientific revolution.<br/><br/> His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ('Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy'), first published in 1687, laid the foundations for classical mechanics. Newton made seminal contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of calculus.
A color wheel or color circle is an abstract illustrative organization of color hues around a circle that shows relationships between primary colors, secondary colors, tertiary colors, etc.
Galileo Galilei (15 Feb. 1564—8 Jan. 1642) was an Italian physicist, mathematician, philosopher and astronomer who played a pivotal role in establishing modern science at a time when contradiction of religion was considered heresy. It was as an astronomer that he was most controversial. Galileo developed telescopes that confirmed the phases of Venus, and the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), as well as sunspots.<br/><br/> In 1610, while a majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric opinion that the Earth was the centre of the universe, Galileo came out in support of Copernicus' heliocentric view that the Sun was at the center of the solar system.<br/><br/> Galileo's opinions were met with outrage and bitter opposition, and he was denounced to the Roman Inquisition. In February 1616, although he had been cleared of any offence, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as 'false and contrary to [Christian] Scripture' and forced Galileo to renounce his scientific conclusions.<br/><br/> However, in 1632, Galileo published 'Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems', in which he again defended heliocentrism. He was tried by the Inquisition, found 'vehemently suspect of heresy', forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Christiaan Huygens (14 April 1629 – 8 July 1695) was a prominent Dutch mathematician and scientist. He is known particularly as an astronomer, physicist, probabilist and horologist.<br/><br/> Huygens was a leading scientist of his time. His work included early telescopic studies of the rings of Saturn and the discovery of its moon Titan, the invention of the pendulum clock and other investigations in timekeeping. He published major studies of mechanics and optics, and a pioneer work on games of chance.
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (30 April 1777 – 23 February 1855) was a German mathematician who contributed significantly to many fields, including number theory, algebra, statistics, analysis, differential geometry, geodesy, geophysics, mechanics, electrostatics, astronomy, matrix theory, and optics.<br/><br/> Sometimes referred to as the Princeps mathematicorum (Latin, 'the foremost of mathematicians') and the 'greatest mathematician since antiquity', Gauss had an exceptional influence in many fields of mathematics and science and is ranked as one of history's most influential mathematicians.
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 1452 – 2 May 1519) was an Italian polymath, painter, sculptor, architect, musician, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist, and writer. He is widely considered to be one of the greatest painters of all time and perhaps the most diversely talented person ever to have lived.<br/><br/> His genius, perhaps more than that of any other figure, epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal. Leonardo has often been described as the archetype of the Renaissance Man.
Sir Isaac Newton PRS MP (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726) was an English physicist and mathematician (described in his own day as a 'natural philosopher') who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and as a key figure in the scientific revolution.<br/><br/> His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ('Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy'), first published in 1687, laid the foundations for classical mechanics. Newton made seminal contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of calculus.
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Latin for 'Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy', often referred to as simply the Principia, is a work in three books by Sir Isaac Newton, in Latin, first published 5 July 1687.<br/><br/> After annotating and correcting his personal copy of the first edition, Newton also published two further editions, in 1713 and 1726. The Principia states Newton's laws of motion, forming the foundation of classical mechanics, also Newton's law of universal gravitation, and a derivation of Kepler's laws of planetary motion (which Kepler first obtained empirically).<br/><br/> The Principia is 'justly regarded as one of the most important works in the history of science'.
Albrecht Durer (21 May 1471 – 6 April 1528) was a painter, printmaker and theorist of the German Renaissance. Born in Nuremberg, Durer established his reputation and influence across Europe when he was still in his twenties, due to his high-quality woodcut prints. He was in communication with the major Italian artists of his time, including Raphael, Giovanni Bellini and Leonardo da Vinci, and from 1512 he was patronized by emperor Maximilian I.<br/><br/> His vast body of work includes engravings, his preferred technique in his later prints, altarpieces, portraits and self-portraits, watercolours and books. The woodcuts, such as the Apocalypse series (1498), retain a more Gothic flavour than the rest of his work. His well-known engravings include the Knight, Death, and the Devil (1513), Saint Jerome in his Study (1514) and Melencolia I (1514), which has been the subject of extensive analysis and interpretation. His watercolours also mark him as one of the first European landscape artists, while his ambitious woodcuts revolutionized the potential of that medium.<br/><br/> Dürer's introduction of classical motifs into Northern art, through his knowledge of Italian artists and German humanists, has secured his reputation as one of the most important figures of the Northern Renaissance. This is reinforced by his theoretical treatises, which involve principles of mathematics, perspective and ideal proportions.
Omar Khayyám (1048–1131; Persian: ‏عمر خیام) was a Persian polymath: philosopher, mathematician, astronomer and poet. He also wrote treatises on mechanics, geography, mineralogy, music, climatology and theology.<br/><br/> Born in Nishapur, at a young age he moved to Samarkand and obtained his education there, afterwards he moved to Bukhara and became established as one of the major mathematicians and astronomers of the medieval period. He is the author of one of the most important treatises on algebra written before modern times, the Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra, which includes a geometric method for solving cubic equations by intersecting a hyperbola with a circle. He contributed to a calendar reform.<br/><br/> His significance as a philosopher and teacher, and his few remaining philosophical works, have not received the same attention as his scientific and poetic writings. Zamakhshari referred to him as 'the philosopher of the world'. Many sources have testified that he taught for decades the philosophy of Ibn Sina in Nishapur where Khayyám was born and buried and where his mausoleum today remains a masterpiece of Iranian architecture visited by many people every year.
Abū ʿAbdallāh Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī, earlier transliterated as Algoritmi or Algaurizin, (c. 780 – c. 850) was a Persian mathematician, astronomer and geographer, a scholar in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad.<br/><br/> In the twelfth century, Latin translations of his work on the Indian numerals, introduced the decimal positional number system to the Western world. His Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing presented the first systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations in Arabic. In Renaissance Europe, he was considered the original inventor of algebra, although we now know that his work is based on older Indian or Greek sources. He revised Ptolemy's Geography and wrote on astronomy and astrology.<br/><br/> Some words reflect the importance of al-Khwarizmi's contributions to mathematics. 'Algebra' is derived from al-jabr, one of the two operations he used to solve quadratic equations. Algorism and algorithm stem from Algoritmi, the Latin form of his name.
Father Ferdinand Verbiest (1623-1688) was a Flemish Jesuit missionary in China during the Qing dynasty. He proved to the court of Kangxi Emperor that European astronomy was more accurate than Chinese astronomy.<br/><br/> He then corrected the Chinese calendar and was later asked to rebuild and re-equip the Beijing Ancient Observatory, being given the role of Head of the Mathematical Board and Director of the Observatory.<br/><br/> Verbiest was the only Westerner in Chinese history to ever receive the honour of a posthumous name by the Emperor. He is buried in Beijing.
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (30 April 1777 – 23 February 1855) was a German mathematician who contributed significantly to many fields, including number theory, algebra, statistics, analysis, differential geometry, geodesy, geophysics, mechanics, electrostatics, astronomy, matrix theory, and optics.<br/><br/> Sometimes referred to as the <i>Princeps mathematicorum</i> (Latin, 'the foremost of mathematicians') and the 'greatest mathematician since antiquity', Gauss had an exceptional influence in many fields of mathematics and science and is ranked as one of history's most influential mathematicians.
René Descartes ( 31 March 1596 – 11 February 1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician and scientist who spent most of his life in the Dutch Republic.<br/><br/> He has been dubbed the father of modern philosophy, and much subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day. In particular, his <i>Meditations on First Philosophy</i> continues to be a standard text at most university philosophy departments. Descartes' influence in mathematics is equally apparent; the Cartesian coordinate system — allowing reference to a point in space as a set of numbers, and allowing algebraic equations to be expressed as geometric shapes in a two-dimensional coordinate system (and conversely, shapes to be described as equations) — was named after him.<br/><br/> He is credited as the father of analytical geometry, the bridge between algebra and geometry, crucial to the discovery of infinitesimal calculus and analysis. Descartes was also one of the key figures in the scientific revolution and has been described as an example of genius.
Albrecht Dürer (21 May 1471 – 6 April 1528) was a German painter, printmaker and theorist from Nuremberg. His prints established his reputation across Europe when he was still in his twenties, and he has been conventionally regarded as the greatest artist of the Northern Renaissance ever since. Dürer's introduction of classical motifs into Northern art, through his knowledge of Italian artists and German humanists, have secured his reputation as one of the most important figures of the Northern Renaissance. This is reinforced by his theoretical treatises, which involve principles of mathematics, perspective and ideal proportions.
Matteo Ricci, SJ (October 6, 1552 – May 11, 1610; simplified Chinese: Lì Mǎdòu; courtesy name: Xītài) was an Italian Jesuit priest, and one of the founding figures of the Jesuit China Mission.<br/><br/> Xu Guangqi (simplified Chinese: 徐光启; traditional Chinese: 徐光啟; pinyin: Xú Guāngqǐ; April 24, 1562 – November 8, 1633), who later adopted the baptismal name Paul (simplified Chinese: 保禄; traditional Chinese: 保祿), was a Chinese scholar-bureaucrat, agricultural scientist, astronomer, and mathematician in the Ming Dynasty.
Galileo Galilei (15 Feb. 1564—8 Jan. 1642) was an Italian physicist, mathematician, philosopher and astronomer who played a pivotal role in establishing modern science at a time when contradiction of religion was considered heresy. It was as an astronomer that he was most controversial. Galileo developed telescopes that confirmed the phases of Venus, and the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), as well as sunspots.<br/><br/> In 1610, while a majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric opinion that the Earth was the centre of the universe, Galileo came out in support of Copernicus' heliocentric view that the Sun was at the center of the solar system.<br/><br/> Galileo's opinions were met with outrage and bitter opposition, and he was denounced to the Roman Inquisition. In February 1616, although he had been cleared of any offence, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as 'false and contrary to [Christian] Scripture' and forced Galileo to renounce his scientific conclusions.<br/><br/> However, in 1632, Galileo published 'Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems', in which he again defended heliocentrism. He was tried by the Inquisition, found 'vehemently suspect of heresy', forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Omar Khayyám (1048–1131; Persian: ‏عمر خیام) was a Persian polymath: philosopher, mathematician, astronomer and poet. He also wrote treatises on mechanics, geography, mineralogy, music, climatology and theology.<br/><br/> Born in Nishapur, at a young age he moved to Samarkand and obtained his education there, afterwards he moved to Bukhara and became established as one of the major mathematicians and astronomers of the medieval period. He is the author of one of the most important treatises on algebra written before modern times, the Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra, which includes a geometric method for solving cubic equations by intersecting a hyperbola with a circle. He contributed to a calendar reform.<br/><br/> His significance as a philosopher and teacher, and his few remaining philosophical works, have not received the same attention as his scientific and poetic writings. Zamakhshari referred to him as 'the philosopher of the world'. Many sources have testified that he taught for decades the philosophy of Ibn Sina in Nishapur where Khayyám was born and buried and where his mausoleum today remains a masterpiece of Iranian architecture visited by many people every year.
Albrecht Dürer (21 May 1471 – 6 April 1528) was a German painter, printmaker and theorist from Nuremberg. His prints established his reputation across Europe when he was still in his twenties, and he has been conventionally regarded as the greatest artist of the Northern Renaissance ever since. Dürer's introduction of classical motifs into Northern art, through his knowledge of Italian artists and German humanists, have secured his reputation as one of the most important figures of the Northern Renaissance. This is reinforced by his theoretical treatises, which involve principles of mathematics, perspective and ideal proportions.
Abu Mūsā Jābir ibn Hayyān (al-Azdi / al-Kufi / al-Tusi / al-Sufi), often known simply as Geber, (Persian/Arabic: جابر بن حیان) (born c. 721 in Tus, Persia; died c. 815 in Kufa, Iraq) was a prominent polymath: a chemist and alchemist, astronomer and astrologer, engineer, geologist, philosopher, physicist, and pharmacist and physician. Born and educated in Tus, he later traveled to Kufa. Jābir is held to be the first practical alchemist.<br/><br/> As early as the 10th century, the identity and exact corpus of works of Jābir was in dispute in Islamic circles. His name was Latinized as 'Geber' in the Christian West and in 13th century Europe an anonymous writer, usually referred to as Pseudo-Geber, produced alchemical and metallurgical writings under the pen-name Geber.
Galileo Galilei (15 Feb. 1564—8 Jan. 1642) was an Italian physicist, mathematician, philosopher and astronomer who played a pivotal role in establishing modern science at a time when contradiction of religion was considered heresy. It was as an astronomer that he was most controversial. Galileo developed telescopes that confirmed the phases of Venus, and the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), as well as sunspots.<br/><br/> In 1610, while a majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric opinion that the Earth was the centre of the universe, Galileo came out in support of Copernicus' heliocentric view that the Sun was at the center of the solar system.<br/><br/> Galileo's opinions were met with outrage and bitter opposition, and he was denounced to the Roman Inquisition. In February 1616, although he had been cleared of any offence, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as 'false and contrary to [Christian] Scripture' and forced Galileo to renounce his scientific conclusions.<br/><br/> However, in 1632, Galileo published 'Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems', in which he again defended heliocentrism. He was tried by the Inquisition, found 'vehemently suspect of heresy', forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Ulugh Bek (Uzbek: Muhammad Tarag'ay Ulug'bek, Муҳаммад Тарағай Улуғбек; Persian: میرزا محمد طارق بن شاہرخ الغ‌بیگ - Mīrzā Muhammad Tāraghay bin Shāhrukh Uluġ Bek) (22 March 1394 in Sultaniyeh (Persia) – 27 October, 1449 (Samarkand) was a Timurid ruler as well as an astronomer, mathematician and sultan.<br/><br/> His commonly-known name is not truly a personal name, but can be loosely translated as 'Great Ruler' and was the Turkic equivalent of Timur's Perso-Arabic title Amīr-e Kabīr. His real name was Mīrzā Mohammad Tāraghay bin Shāhrokh. Ulugh Beg was notable for his work in astronomy-related mathematics, such as trigonometry and spherical geometry. He built the great observatory in Samarkand, between 1424 and 1429.
Abū ʿAbdallāh Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī, earlier transliterated as Algoritmi or Algaurizin, (c. 780 – c. 850) was a Persian mathematician, astronomer and geographer, a scholar in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad.<br/><br/> In the twelfth century, Latin translations of his work on the Indian numerals, introduced the decimal positional number system to the Western world. His Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing presented the first systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations in Arabic. In Renaissance Europe, he was considered the original inventor of algebra, although we now know that his work is based on older Indian or Greek sources. He revised Ptolemy's Geography and wrote on astronomy and astrology.<br/><br/> Some words reflect the importance of al-Khwarizmi's contributions to mathematics. 'Algebra' is derived from al-jabr, one of the two operations he used to solve quadratic equations. Algorism and algorithm stem from Algoritmi, the Latin form of his name.
Galileo Galilei (15 Feb. 1564—8 Jan. 1642) was an Italian physicist, mathematician, philosopher and astronomer who played a pivotal role in establishing modern science at a time when contradiction of religion was considered heresy. It was as an astronomer that he was most controversial. Galileo developed telescopes that confirmed the phases of Venus, and the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), as well as sunspots.<br/><br/> In 1610, while a majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric opinion that the Earth was the centre of the universe, Galileo came out in support of Copernicus' heliocentric view that the Sun was at the center of the solar system.<br/><br/> Galileo's opinions were met with outrage and bitter opposition, and he was denounced to the Roman Inquisition. In February 1616, although he had been cleared of any offence, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as 'false and contrary to [Christian] Scripture' and forced Galileo to renounce his scientific conclusions.<br/><br/> However, in 1632, Galileo published 'Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems', in which he again defended heliocentrism. He was tried by the Inquisition, found 'vehemently suspect of heresy', forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Ulugh Bek (Uzbek: Muhammad Tarag'ay Ulug'bek, Муҳаммад Тарағай Улуғбек; Persian: میرزا محمد طارق بن شاہرخ الغ‌بیگ - Mīrzā Muhammad Tāraghay bin Shāhrukh Uluġ Bek) (22 March 1394 in Sultaniyeh (Persia) – 27 October, 1449 (Samarkand) was a Timurid ruler as well as an astronomer, mathematician and sultan.<br/><br/> His commonly-known name is not truly a personal name, but can be loosely translated as 'Great Ruler' and was the Turkic equivalent of Timur's Perso-Arabic title Amīr-e Kabīr. His real name was Mīrzā Mohammad Tāraghay bin Shāhrokh. Ulugh Beg was notable for his work in astronomy-related mathematics, such as trigonometry and spherical geometry. He built the great observatory in Samarkand, between 1424 and 1429.
Omar Khayyám (1048–1131; Persian: ‏عمر خیام) was a Persian polymath: philosopher, mathematician, astronomer and poet. He also wrote treatises on mechanics, geography, mineralogy, music, climatology and theology.<br/><br/> Born in Nishapur, at a young age he moved to Samarkand and obtained his education there, afterwards he moved to Bukhara and became established as one of the major mathematicians and astronomers of the medieval period. He is the author of one of the most important treatises on algebra written before modern times, the Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra, which includes a geometric method for solving cubic equations by intersecting a hyperbola with a circle. He contributed to a calendar reform.<br/><br/> His significance as a philosopher and teacher, and his few remaining philosophical works, have not received the same attention as his scientific and poetic writings. Zamakhshari referred to him as 'the philosopher of the world'. Many sources have testified that he taught for decades the philosophy of Ibn Sina in Nishapur where Khayyám was born and buried and where his mausoleum today remains a masterpiece of Iranian architecture visited by many people every year.
Galileo Galilei (15 Feb. 1564—8 Jan. 1642) was an Italian physicist, mathematician, philosopher and astronomer who played a pivotal role in establishing modern science at a time when contradiction of religion was considered heresy. It was as an astronomer that he was most controversial. Galileo developed telescopes that confirmed the phases of Venus, and the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), as well as sunspots.<br/><br/> In 1610, while a majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric opinion that the Earth was the centre of the universe, Galileo came out in support of Copernicus' heliocentric view that the Sun was at the center of the solar system.<br/><br/> Galileo's opinions were met with outrage and bitter opposition, and he was denounced to the Roman Inquisition. In February 1616, although he had been cleared of any offence, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as 'false and contrary to [Christian] Scripture' and forced Galileo to renounce his scientific conclusions.<br/><br/> However, in 1632, Galileo published 'Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems', in which he again defended heliocentrism. He was tried by the Inquisition, found 'vehemently suspect of heresy', forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Xu Guangqi (simplified Chinese: 徐光启; traditional Chinese: 徐光啟; pinyin: Xú Guāngqǐ; April 24, 1562 – November 8, 1633), who later adopted the baptismal name Paul (simplified Chinese: 保禄; traditional Chinese: 保祿), was a Chinese scholar-bureaucrat, agricultural scientist, astronomer, and mathematician in the Ming Dynasty.<br/><br/> Xu was a colleague and collaborator of the Italian Jesuits Matteo Ricci and Sabatino de Ursis and they translated several classic Western texts into Chinese, including part of Euclid's Elements. He was also the author of the Nong Zheng Quan Shu, one of the first comprehensive treatises on the subject of agriculture.<br/><br/> He was one of the 'Three Pillars of Chinese Catholicism'.
Ulugh Bek (Uzbek: Muhammad Tarag'ay Ulug'bek, Муҳаммад Тарағай Улуғбек; Persian: میرزا محمد طارق بن شاہرخ الغ‌بیگ - Mīrzā Muhammad Tāraghay bin Shāhrukh Uluġ Bek) (22 March 1394 in Sultaniyeh (Persia) – 27 October, 1449 (Samarkand) was a Timurid ruler as well as an astronomer, mathematician and sultan.<br/><br/> His commonly-known name is not truly a personal name, but can be loosely translated as 'Great Ruler' and was the Turkic equivalent of Timur's Perso-Arabic title Amīr-e Kabīr. His real name was Mīrzā Mohammad Tāraghay bin Shāhrokh. Ulugh Beg was notable for his work in astronomy-related mathematics, such as trigonometry and spherical geometry. He built the great observatory in Samarkand, between 1424 and 1429.
Abū al-Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-Bīrūnī (born 5 September 973 in Kath, Khwarezm, died 13 December 1048 in Ghazn, known as Alberonius in Latin and Al-Biruni in English, was an Iranian-Chorasmian Muslim scholar and polymath of the 11th century CE.<br/><br/> Al-Biruni is regarded as one of the greatest scholars of the medieval Islamic era and was well versed in physics, mathematics, astronomy, and natural sciences, and also distinguished himself as a historian, chronologist and linguist. He was conversant in Chorasmian, Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit and Turkic, and also knew Greek, Hebrew and Syriac. He spent a large part of his life in Ghazni, modern-day Afghanistan, and in 1017 travelled to the Indian subcontinent.<br/><br/> He became the most important interpreter of Indian science to the Islamic world. He is given the titles the 'founder of Indology' and the 'first anthropologist'. He was an impartial writer on custom and creeds of various nations, and was given the title al-Ustdadh ('The Master') for his remarkable description of early 11th-century India. He also made contributions to Earth sciences, and is regarded as the 'father of geodesy' for his important contributions to that field, along with his significant contributions to geography.
Copernican heliocentrism is the name given to the astronomical model developed by Nicolaus Copernicus and published in 1543. It positioned the Sun near the center of the Universe, motionless, with Earth and the other planets rotating around it in circular paths modified by epicycles and at uniform speeds.<br/><br/> The Copernican model departed from the Ptolemaic system that prevailed in Western culture for centuries, placing Earth at the center of the Universe, and is often regarded as the launching point to modern astronomy and the Scientific Revolution.
René Descartes ( 31 March 1596 – 11 February 1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician and scientist who spent most of his life in the Dutch Republic.<br/><br/> He has been dubbed the father of modern philosophy, and much subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day. In particular, his <i>Meditations on First Philosophy</i> continues to be a standard text at most university philosophy departments. Descartes' influence in mathematics is equally apparent; the Cartesian coordinate system — allowing reference to a point in space as a set of numbers, and allowing algebraic equations to be expressed as geometric shapes in a two-dimensional coordinate system (and conversely, shapes to be described as equations) — was named after him.<br/><br/> He is credited as the father of analytical geometry, the bridge between algebra and geometry, crucial to the discovery of infinitesimal calculus and analysis. Descartes was also one of the key figures in the scientific revolution and has been described as an example of genius.