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The Second Anglo-Afghan War was waged between the British Raj and the Emirate of Afghanistan from 1878 to 1880. A consequence of the Great Game between Britain and Russia, the conflict was instigated by the latter sending an uninvited diplomatic mission to Kabul, despite the wishes and protestations of Sher Ali Khan, the Amir of Afghanistan. When a British demand for their own diplomatic mission was refused, the Second Anglo-Afghan War commenced.<br/><br/> The first phase of the invasion saw a string of British military victories that led to the Treaty of Gandamak, which saw Afghan foreign affairs given over to the British in exchange for internal sovereignty and military protection; British representatives were installed in Kabul to secure the deal. When the representatives were slaughtered by an uprising in 1879 however, the second phase of the war began, which once again saw the British reigning supreme and the ceding of further territories from Afghanistan.
Alfonso V (994 – 7 August 1028), called the Noble, was King of León from 999 to 1028. Enough is known of him to justify the belief that he had some of the qualities of a soldier and a statesman.<br/><br/> Like other kings of León, Alfonso used the title emperor to assert his standing among the Christian rulers of Spain. He succeeded his father, Bermudo II, in 999. His mother Elvira García and count Menendo González, who raised him in Galicia, acted as his co-regents. Upon the count's death in 1008, Alfonso ruled on his own.
The <i>Anwar-i Suhayli</i> or 'The Lights of Canopus', commonly known as the <i>Fables of Bidpai</i> in the West, is a Persian version of the ancient Indian collection of animal fables, the <i>Panchatantra</i>. It tells a tale of a Persian physician, Burzuyah, and his mission to India, where he stumbles upon a book of stories collected from the animals who reside there.<br/><br/> In a similar vein to the <i>Arabian Nights</i>, the fables in the manuscript are inter-woven as the characters of one story recount the next, leading up to three or four degrees of narrative embedding. Many usually have morals or offer philosophical glimpses into human behaviour, emphasising loyalty and teamwork.
The <i>Anwar-i Suhayli</i> or 'The Lights of Canopus', commonly known as the <i>Fables of Bidpai</i> in the West, is a Persian version of the ancient Indian collection of animal fables, the <i>Panchatantra</i>. It tells a tale of a Persian physician, Burzuyah, and his mission to India, where he stumbles upon a book of stories collected from the animals who reside there.<br/><br/> In a similar vein to the <i>Arabian Nights</i>, the fables in the manuscript are inter-woven as the characters of one story recount the next, leading up to three or four degrees of narrative embedding. Many usually have morals or offer philosophical glimpses into human behaviour, emphasising loyalty and teamwork.
The <i>Anwar-i Suhayli</i> or 'The Lights of Canopus', commonly known as the <i>Fables of Bidpai</i> in the West, is a Persian version of the ancient Indian collection of animal fables, the <i>Panchatantra</i>. It tells a tale of a Persian physician, Burzuyah, and his mission to India, where he stumbles upon a book of stories collected from the animals who reside there.<br/><br/> In a similar vein to the <i>Arabian Nights</i>, the fables in the manuscript are inter-woven as the characters of one story recount the next, leading up to three or four degrees of narrative embedding. Many usually have morals or offer philosophical glimpses into human behaviour, emphasising loyalty and teamwork.
Japan: 'A Youthful Noble'. Chemigraph from series 'Military Costumes in Old Japan' by Kazumasa Ogawa (1860-1929), 1893, Tokyo. Ogawa Kazumasa, also known as Ogawa Kazuma or Ogawa Isshin, was a Japanese photographer, chemigrapher, printer and publisher of the Meiji era. He was a pioneer in photomechanical printing and photography, and was born into the Matsudaira samurai clan, where he studied English and photography at the age of 15.
The Hiranyavarna Mahavihara, or Golden Temple, is one of the Kathmandu Valley’s major showcases of art and architecture. Supposedly founded in the 12th century by King Bhaskara Deva Varma, the temple, as it presents itself today, mostly dates back to the 18th century.<br/><br/> The entire facade of the main shrine is covered with gilded copper, as are the very detailed torana and all the roofs. In the middle of the courtyard sits an additional little temple building, its roof likewise gilded, and its front fitted with a golden door and decorated with a number of golden statues. The two statues at the extreme left show King Bhaskara Deva Varma and his wife kneeling respectfully and gazing towards the main shrine, which is devoted to the Akshobhya Buddha.
The Hiranyavarna Mahavihara, or Golden Temple, is one of the Kathmandu Valley’s major showcases of art and architecture. Supposedly founded in the 12th century by King Bhaskara Deva Varma, the temple, as it presents itself today, mostly dates back to the 18th century.<br/><br/> The entire facade of the main shrine is covered with gilded copper, as are the very detailed torana and all the roofs. In the middle of the courtyard sits an additional little temple building, its roof likewise gilded, and its front fitted with a golden door and decorated with a number of golden statues. The two statues at the extreme left show King Bhaskara Deva Varma and his wife kneeling respectfully and gazing towards the main shrine, which is devoted to the Akshobhya Buddha.
The Hiranyavarna Mahavihara, or Golden Temple, is one of the Kathmandu Valley’s major showcases of art and architecture. Supposedly founded in the 12th century by King Bhaskara Deva Varma, the temple, as it presents itself today, mostly dates back to the 18th century.<br/><br/> The entire facade of the main shrine is covered with gilded copper, as are the very detailed torana and all the roofs. In the middle of the courtyard sits an additional little temple building, its roof likewise gilded, and its front fitted with a golden door and decorated with a number of golden statues. The two statues at the extreme left show King Bhaskara Deva Varma and his wife kneeling respectfully and gazing towards the main shrine, which is devoted to the Akshobhya Buddha.
The <i>Anwar-i Suhayli</i> or 'The Lights of Canopus', commonly known as the <i>Fables of Bidpai</i> in the West, is a Persian version of the ancient Indian collection of animal fables, the <i>Panchatantra</i>. It tells a tale of a Persian physician, Burzuyah, and his mission to India, where he stumbles upon a book of stories collected from the animals who reside there.<br/><br/> In a similar vein to the <i>Arabian Nights</i>, the fables in the manuscript are inter-woven as the characters of one story recount the next, leading up to three or four degrees of narrative embedding. Many usually have morals or offer philosophical glimpses into human behaviour, emphasising loyalty and teamwork.
From 1861 to 1890 the Munich publishing firm of Braun and Schneider published plates of historic and contemporary costume in their magazine Munchener Bilderbogen.<br/><br/> These plates were eventually collected in book form and published at the turn of the century in Germany and England.
Onakatomi no Kiyomaro (702 – September 6, 788) was a Japanese noble of the Nara period. Born the seventh son of the chunagon Nakatomi no Omimaro of the Nakatomi clan, he changed his name and founded the Onakatomi clan. He reached the court rank of <i>sho ni-i</i> and the position of <i>udaijin</i> or Minister of the Right.
Mahito took part in the planning of the Taiho Code alongside Prince Osakabe and Fujiwara no Fuhito, and in 701 was promoted to head of the Ministry of Popular Affairs. Mahito was also appointed as chief diplomat on a mission to Tang China, receiving a ceremonial sword from Emperor Tenmu as a symbol of his command.<br/><br/> In 704, the mission returned to Japan, along with some Japanese who had been captives since the Battle of Baekgang in 663. Mahito was rewarded with land in Yamato Province.
From 1861 to 1890 the Munich publishing firm of Braun and Schneider published plates of historic and contemporary costume in their magazine Munchener Bilderbogen.<br/><br/> These plates were eventually collected in book form and published at the turn of the century in Germany and England.
Maximilian I (22 March 1459 – 12 January 1519), the son of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, and Eleanor of Portugal, was King of the Romans (also known as King of the Germans) from 1486 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death, though he was never in fact crowned by the Pope, the journey to Rome always being too risky.<br/><br/> He had ruled jointly with his father for the last ten years of his father's reign, from c. 1483. He expanded the influence of the House of Habsburg through war and his marriage in 1477 to Mary of Burgundy, the heiress to the Duchy of Burgundy, but he also lost the Austrian territories in today's Switzerland to the Swiss Confederacy.
In 1909, Zaixun was appointed as an acting Navy Minister in the Imperial Cabinet headed by Prince Qing. Later, he was sent to Europe and the United States to study the navies of the Western powers.<br/><br/> After returning to China, in 1911, he became a full Navy Minister. After the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty, he lived the rest of his life in retirement in Beijing and Tianjin. He died in Tianjin in 1949.
Juan Manuel de Rosas (30 March 1793 – 14 March 1877) was a politician and army officer who ruled Buenos Aires Province and briefly the Argentine Confederation.<br/><br/> Although born into a wealthy family, Rosas independently amassed a personal fortune, acquiring large tracts of land in the process. Rosas enlisted his workers in a private militia, as was common for rural proprietors, and took part in the factious disputes that led to numerous civil wars in his country. Victorious in warfare, personally influential, and with vast landholdings and a loyal private army, Rosas became the quintessential <i>caudillo</i>, as provincial warlords in the region were known.<br/><br/> In fact, far from being a 'liberator', Black people did not experience any improvement in their conditions under his totalitarian regime. Rosas was himself a slave-owner, and helped revive the slave trade. Despite doing little to promote their interests, he remained popular among blacks and gauchos. He employed blacks, patronized their festivities and attended their religious ceremonies.
The Kurds are an ethnic Iranian group in the Middle East, mostly inhabiting a contiguous area spanning adjacent parts of modern-day Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey, a geo-cultural region often referred to as 'Kurdistan'. The Kurds have ethnically diverse origins. They are culturally and linguistically closely related to the Iranian peoples and, as a result, are often themselves classified as an Iranian people. The Kurdish languages form a subgroup of the Northwestern Iranian languages.<br/><br/> The Kurds number about 40 million, the majority living in West Asia, including significant Kurdish diaspora communities in the cities of western Turkey outside of Kurdistan. A recent Kurdish diaspora has developed in Western countries, primarily in Germany. The Kurds are in the majority in the autonomous region of Iraqi Kurdistan and in the autonomous region of Syrian Kurdistan and are a significant minority group in the neighboring countries Turkey and Iran, where Kurdish nationalist movements continue to pursue autonomy.
Marcus Mosiah Garvey, Jr., (17 August 1887 – 10 June 1940), was a Jamaican political leader, publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, and orator who was a proponent of the Pan-Africanism movement, to which end he founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League. He also founded the Black Star Line, a shipping and passenger line which promoted the return of the African diaspora to their ancestral lands.<br/><br/> Garvey advanced a Pan-African philosophy to inspire a global mass movement and economic empowerment focusing on Africa known as 'Garveyism'. Garveyism intended persons of African ancestry in the diaspora to 'redeem' the nations of Africa and for the European colonial powers to leave the continent.
In 750, Kiyokawa was appointed envoy to Tang China, with Otomo no Komaro and Kibi no Makibi as vice-envoys. Before his departure, the Emperor gave him a symbolic sword as a sign of his command.<br/><br/> Upon arriving in Tang China, the envoy entered Chang'an and had an audience with Emperor Xuanzong. Because of the exigencies of the time, he remained in China until his death in 778.
Indian painting has a very long tradition and history in Indian art. The earliest Indian paintings were the rock paintings of pre-historic times, the petroglyphs as found in places like Bhimbetka, some of them from before 5500 BC. India's Buddhist literature is replete with examples of texts which describe palaces of kings and the aristocratic class embellished with paintings, but the paintings of the Ajanta Caves are the most significant of the few survivals.<br/><br/> Smaller scale painting in manuscripts was probably also practised in this period, though the earliest survivals are from the medieval period. Mughal painting represented a fusion of the Persian miniature with older Indian traditions, and from the 17th century its style was diffused across Indian princely courts of all religions, each developing a local style. Company paintings were made for British clients under the British raj, which from the 19th century also introduced art schools along Western lines, leading to modern Indian painting, which is increasingly returning to its Indian routes.<br/><br/> Indian paintings provide an aesthetic continuum that extends from the early civilization to the present day. From being essentially religious in purpose in the beginning, Indian painting has evolved over the years to become a fusion of various cultures and traditions.
Cai Wenji was born shortly before 178 CE in what is now Qi County, Kaifeng, Henan. In 195, the chaos after Chancellor Dong Zhuo's death brought Xiongnu nomads into the Chinese capital and Cai Wenji was taken as prisoner to the northern lands. During her captivity, she became the wife of the Xiongnu chieftain Liu Bao and bore him two sons.<br/><br/> It was not until twelve years later that Cao Cao, the new Chancellor of Han, ransomed her in the name of her father. When Cai Wenji returned to her homeland, she left her children behind at the frontier. The reason Cao Cao needed her back, was that she was the only one remaining of her clan and he needed her to placate the spirits of her ancestors.<br/><br/> Cai Wenji's father Cai Yong was an established writer, but his works were lost in the ravages of war. At Cao Cao's request, Cai Wenji was able to recite from memory up to four hundred out of four thousand of her father's lost works. Later in her life, she wrote two poems describing her turbulent years. Her year of death is unknown. Contemporary (20th century) painting.
'Our readers will not have forgotten the circumstances of the wreck of the Kite, East Indiaman, on the Chinese coast; and the fate of the crew, and the revolting cruelty practised by the natives on Mrs. Noble, the wife of the captain of the Kite, who was confined in a cage and carried about for six weeks'. <br/><br/> Sensationalist (and exaggerated) report in the The Illustrated London News (13 August 1842). In fact Mrs Noble was imprisoned in the cage for about two days.
Empress Dowager Cixi (Wade–Giles: Tz'u-Hsi, 29 November 1835 – 15 November 1908) of the Manchu Yehe Nara Clan, was a powerful and charismatic figure who became the de facto ruler of the Manchu Qing Dynasty in China for 47 years from 1861 to her death in 1908.
Empress Dowager Cixi (Wade–Giles: Tz'u-Hsi, 29 November 1835 – 15 November 1908) of the Manchu Yehe Nara Clan, was a powerful and charismatic figure who became the de facto ruler of the Manchu Qing Dynasty in China for 47 years from 1861 to her death in 1908.
The Noble Consort Xin was the daughter of the Governor General Na Sutu. She came from the Manchu Daigiya clan. Lady Daigiya entered the Imperial Court during the eighteenth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign. In April the next year, which was the nineteenth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, Lady Daigiya was elevated to the Imperial Concubine Xin. During the twenty-eighth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, Daigiya was again elevated to the Imperial Consort Xin. Daigiya died in November during the twenty-ninth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, and was posthumously elevated to a Noble Consort.
The Noble Consort Xun was the daughter of the Governor General Guilin. She came from the Manchu Irgen-Gioro clan. Lady Irgen-Gioro entered the Imperial Court on November 18, during the forty-first year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, and was given the title Imperial Concubine with the title Xun (the fifth lowest rank among an emperor's wives). The ceremony for the promotion took place three years later due to the death of Qianlong's mother. In December during the fifty-ninth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, Irgen Gioro was elevated to a Consort. On November 20 during the second year of the Jiaqing Emperor's reign, Irgen-Gioro died, and on September 11 during the fourth year of the Jiaqing Emperor's reign, Irgen-Gioro was buried with the ceremony of a Noble Consort.
The Noble Consort Ying (1731 - 1800), was born during the ninth year of Emperor Yongzheng's reign. She was the daughter of banner Lieutenant General Nachin, and came from the Mongolian Barin clan. During the twenty-second year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, Lady Barin was elevated to an imperial consort, and finally, during the third year of the next emperor, Emperor Jiaqing's reign, Lady Barin was elevated to the Noble Consort Ying. She died on February 29, during the fifth year of the Jiaqing Emperor's reign, aged 70.
The Imperial Noble Consort Qing Gong (1724 - 1774), was an Imperial Consort of the Qianlong Emperor of China, and came from the Lu clan. Lady Lu entered the Imperial Court around the first year of Qianlong's reign, and was given the title Worthy Lady Lu. During the sixth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, Worthy Lady Lu was elevated to an Imperial Concubine, and during the fourteenth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, she was promoted to a consort. Nineteen years later, during the thirty-third year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, she was elevated to the rank of a Noble Consort, and given the name Qing, meaning 'Celebration'. Lady Lu died during the thirty-ninth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, aged 50. Because the next emperor, the Jiaqing Emperor has been raised by Noble Consort Qing, she was posthumously given the title of 'Imperial Noble Consort Qing-Gong.
The Imperial Noble Consort Chun Hui (1713 - 1760) came from the Manchu Sugiya clan. She was the daughter of Sujinam and was born in the fifty-second year of the Kangxi Emperor's reign. Lady Sugiya entered the imperial court during the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor and became a concubine of the then Prince Hong Li (later the Qianlong Emperor). When in 1735 Prince Hong Li ascended the throne Sugiya was given the title of Concubine Chun. Later Lady Sugiya gave birth to two sons and a daughter. In 1760 Lady Sugiya was given the title of Imperial Noble Consort Chun (meaning purity). However, Lady Sugiya died half a year later in the twenty-fifth year of Qianlong Emperor's reign. She was given the posthumous title of Imperial Noble Consort Chun Hui and was later interred in the Yuling Mausoleum for consorts.
The future Empress Xiao Kang Zhang was born into the Han Chinese Tong clan. Although her family was of Jurchen (Manchu) origin, it had lived amongst the Han Chinese for many generations. When Lady Tong entered the imperial court of the Shunzhi Emperor, she was given the title 'Imperial Consort Tong'. She was elevated to the rank of 'Noble Consort' in 1654 when she bore the Emperor a male heir, Prince Xuanye (the later Kangxi Emperor).<br/><br/> When the Shunzhi Emperor died in 1661 and Xuanye was chosen to succeed to the imperial throne as the Kangxi Emperor, the Noble Consort Tong was given the title of 'Dowager Empress Cihe' as the new Emperor's mother. She died of an unknown illness on 20 March 1663 inside the Imperial Palace, at the age of 23. Although she had never been Empress during the reign of her husband, the Shunzhi Emperor, she was given the posthumous title of Empress Xiao Kang Zhang, by which she is still commonly known today.
The future Empress Xiao Kang Zhang was born into the Han Chinese Tong clan. Although her family was of Jurchen (Manchu) origin, it had lived amongst the Han Chinese for many generations. When Lady Tong entered the imperial court of the Shunzhi Emperor, she was given the title 'Imperial Consort Tong'. She was elevated to the rank of 'Noble Consort' in 1654 when she bore the Emperor a male heir, Prince Xuanye (the later Kangxi Emperor).<br/><br/> When the Shunzhi Emperor died in 1661 and Xuanye was chosen to succeed to the imperial throne as the Kangxi Emperor, the Noble Consort Tong was given the title of 'Dowager Empress Cihe' as the new Emperor's mother. She died of an unknown illness on 20 March 1663 inside the Imperial Palace, at the age of 23. Although she had never been Empress during the reign of her husband, the Shunzhi Emperor, she was given the posthumous title of Empress Xiao Kang Zhang, by which she is still commonly known today.
The Imperial Noble Consort Hui Xian (1711 - 1745), came from the Manchu Gao clan. Her clan name was later changed to Gaogiya during Emperor Jiaqing's reign. Her father was the Qing Dynasty scholar Gao Bin (died 1755). Lady Gaogiya became an imperial consort of the Qianlong Emperor during Emperor Yongzheng's reign. When in 1735 Emperor Qianlong ascended the throne, Lady Gaogiya was granted the title of 'Noble Consort'. Lady Gaogiya died in the tenth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, and was given the posthumous title of Imperial Noble Consort Hui-Xian. Several years later, she was interred in the Yuling mausoleum together with Empress Xiao Xian Chun who died three years after her.
Noble Consort Shu Jia, concubine of the Qianlong Emperor (dates and background not known).
The Imperial Noble Consort Qing Gong (1724 - 1774), was an Imperial Consort of the Qianlong Emperor of China, and came from the Lu clan. Lady Lu entered the Imperial Court around the first year of Qianlong's reign, and was given the title Worthy Lady Lu. During the sixth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, Worthy Lady Lu was elevated to an Imperial Concubine, and during the fourteenth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, she was promoted to a consort. Nineteen years later, during the thirty-third year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, she was elevated to the rank of a Noble Consort, and given the name Qing, meaning 'Celebration'. Lady Lu died during the thirty-ninth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, aged 50. Because the next emperor, the Jiaqing Emperor had been raised by Noble Consort Qing, she was posthumously given the title of 'Imperial Noble Consort Qing-Gong.
The Imperial Noble Consort Hui Xian (1711 - 1745), came from the Manchu Gao clan. Her clan name was later changed to Gaogiya during Emperor Jiaqing's reign. Her father was the Qing Dynasty scholar Gao Bin (died 1755). Lady Gaogiya became an imperial consort of the Qianlong Emperor during Emperor Yongzheng's reign. When in 1735 Emperor Qianlong ascended the throne, Lady Gaogiya was granted the title of 'Noble Consort'. Lady Gaogiya died in the tenth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, and was given the posthumous title of Imperial Noble Consort Hui-Xian. Several years later, she was interred in the Yuling mausoleum together with Empress Xiao Xian Chun who died three years after her.
The Imperial Noble Consort Chun Hui came from the Manchu Sugiya clan. She was the daughter of Sujinam and was born in the fifty-second year of the Kangxi Emperor's reign. Lady Sugiya entered the imperial court during the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor and became a concubine of the then Prince Hong Li (later the Qianlong Emperor). When in 1735 Prince Hong Li ascended the throne, Sugiya was given the title of Concubine Chun. Later, Lady Sugiya gave birth to two sons and a daughter. In 1760 Lady Sugiya was given the title of Imperial Noble Consort Chun (meaning purity). However, Lady Sugiya died half a year later in the twenty-fifth year of Qianlong Emperor's reign. She was given the posthumous title of Imperial Noble Consort Chun Hui and was later interred in the Yuling Mausoleum for consorts.
Yin'e, the 10th son of Kangxi, was stripped of all his titles in May 1724, and sent north to the Shunyi area as part of Emperor Yongzheng's struggle to assert himself against his various princely brothers.
'An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon together With somewhat Concerning Severall Remarkable passages of my life that hath hapned [sic] since my Deliverance out of Captivity' is a book written by the English trader and sailor Robert Knox in 1681. It describes his experiences some years earlier on the South Asian island now best known as Sri Lanka and provides one of the most important contemporary accounts of 17th century Ceylonese life. Knox spent 19 years on Ceylon after being taken prisoner by King Rajasimha II.
Edward William Lane (1801-76) was a British Orientalist, translator and Arabic scholar who lived in Ottoman Cairo from 1825-28. So fascinated was he with Egypt, he dressed as an Ottoman Turk and spent much time sketching the backstreets of Cairo. Upon his return to England he translated the novel ‘Arabian Nights’ [‘1001 nights’] and ‘Selections from the Qur’an’.
The Konbaung Dynasty was the last dynasty that ruled Burma (Myanmar), from 1752 to 1885. The dynasty created the second largest empire in Burmese history, and continued the administrative reforms begun by the Toungoo dynasty, laying the foundations of modern state of Burma.<br/><br/> The reforms proved insufficient to stem the advance of the British, who defeated the Burmese in all three Anglo-Burmese wars over a six-decade span (1824–1885) and ended the millennium-old Burmese monarchy in 1885.