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1 <i>dirham</i> Islamic State coin dated 1437 Hijri (Islamic calendar) or 2016 CE, with spear and shield on the obverse.<br/><br/> The Arabic text on the obverse shows 'Islamic State' for the first line, 1 <i>dirham</i> (smaller denomination of the dinar) for the second line, 2 grams for the third line and 'A Caliphate Based on the Doctrine of the Prophet' for the fourth line.
10 <i>dirham</i> Islamic State coin dated 1437 Hijri (Islamic calendar) or 2016 CE, with Al-Aqsa Mosque on the obverse.<br/><br/> The Arabic text on the right image shows 'Islamic State' for the first line, 1 <i>dirham</i> (smaller denomination of the dinar) for the second line, 2 grams for the third line and 'A Caliphate Based on the Doctrine of the Prophet' for the fourth line.
Charlemagne (2 April 742 – 28 January 814 CE), also known as Charles the Great (Latin: Carolus or Karolus Magnus, French: Charles Le Grand or Charlemagne, German: Karl der Grosse, Italian: Carlo Magno or Carlomagno) or Charles I, was King of the Franks who united most of Western Europe during the Middle Ages and laid the foundations for modern France and Germany. He took the Frankish throne from 768 and became King of Italy from 774. From 800 he became the first Holy Roman Emperor - the first recognized Roman emperor in Western Europe since the collapse of the Western Roman Empire three centuries earlier. The expanded Frankish state he founded is called the Carolingian Empire.<br/><br/> The oldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon, Charlemagne became king in 768 following the death of his father. He was initially co-ruler with his brother Carloman I. Carloman's sudden death in 771 under unexplained circumstances left Charlemagne as the undisputed ruler of the Frankish Kingdom. Charlemagne continued his father's policy towards the papacy and became its protector, removing the Lombards from power in northern Italy, and leading an incursion into Muslim Spain. He also campaigned against the Saxons to his east, Christianizing them upon penalty of death, at times leading to events such as the Massacre of Verden. Charlemagne reached the height of his power in 800 when he was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day at Old St. Peter's Basilica.<br/><br/> Called the 'Father of Europe' (pater Europae), Charlemagne united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Roman Empire. His rule spurred the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of cultural and intellectual activity within the Catholic Church. Both the French and German monarchies considered their kingdoms to be descendants of Charlemagne's empire.<br/><br/> Charlemagne died in 814, having ruled as emperor for just over thirteen years. He was laid to rest in his imperial capital of Aachen in what is today Germany. His son Louis the Pious succeeded him.
5 <i>dinar</i> Islamic State coin dated 1437 Hijri (Islamic calendar) or 2016 CE, with a map of the world on the obverse.<br/><br/> The Arabic text on the right image shows 'Islamic State' for the first line, Gold 21 for the second line, 5 <i>dinar</i> for the third line, 21.25 grams for the fourth line and 'A Caliphate Based on the Doctrine of the Prophet' for the fifth line.
Aemilianus (Latin: Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus Augustus; c. 207/213 – 253 CE), also known as Aemilian, was Roman Emperor for three months in 253 CE.<br/><br/> Commander of the Moesian troops, he obtained an important victory against the invading Goths and was, for this reason, acclaimed Emperor by his army. He then moved quickly to Italy, where he defeated Emperor Trebonianus Gallus, only to be killed by his own men when another general, Valerian, proclaimed himself Emperor and moved against Aemilian with a larger army.
20 <i>fuluus</i> Islamic State coin dated 1437 Hijri (Islamic calendar) or 2016 CE, with palm trees on the obverse.<br/><br/> The Arabic text on the reverse shows 'Islamic State' for the first line, 20 <i>fuluus</i> (smaller denomination of the dinar) for the second line, 20 grams for the third line and 'A Caliphate Based on the Doctrine of the Prophet' for the fourth line.
The Japanese Empire occupied the Dutch East Indies, today Indonesia, during World War II from March 1942 until after the end of the War in 1945. The period was one of the most critical in Indonesian history. Under German occupation, the Netherlands had little ability to defend its colony against the Japanese army, and less than three months after the first attacks on Borneo the Japanese navy and army overran Dutch and allied forces.<br/><br/> Initially, most Indonesians optimistically and even joyfully welcomed the Japanese as liberators from their Dutch colonial masters. This sentiment changed as Indonesians were expected to endure more hardship for the war effort. In 1944–45, Allied troops largely by-passed Indonesia and did not fight their way into the most populous parts such as Java and Sumatra. As such, most of Indonesia was still under Japanese occupation at the time of their surrender in August 1945.
The Japanese Empire occupied the Dutch East Indies, today Indonesia, during World War II from March 1942 until after the end of the War in 1945. The period was one of the most critical in Indonesian history. Under German occupation, the Netherlands had little ability to defend its colony against the Japanese army, and less than three months after the first attacks on Borneo the Japanese navy and army overran Dutch and allied forces.<br/><br/> Initially, most Indonesians optimistically and even joyfully welcomed the Japanese as liberators from their Dutch colonial masters. This sentiment changed as Indonesians were expected to endure more hardship for the war effort. In 1944–45, Allied troops largely by-passed Indonesia and did not fight their way into the most populous parts such as Java and Sumatra. As such, most of Indonesia was still under Japanese occupation at the time of their surrender in August 1945.
Óc Eo is an archaeological site in Thoại Sơn District in southern An Giang Province, Vietnam, in the Mekong River Delta region of Vietnam. It is also one of the modern day communes of Vietnam. Óc Eo may have been a busy port of the kingdom of Funan between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. Scholars use the term 'Óc Eo Culture' to refer to the ancient material culture of the Mekong Delta region that is typified by the artifacts recovered at Óc Eo through archeological investigation.<br/><br/> The remains found at Óc Eo include pottery, tools, jewelry, casts for making jewelry, coins (including coins from the Roman Empire), and religious statues. Many of the remains have been collected and are on exhibition in the Museum of Vietnamese History in Ho Chi Minh City.
The Pyu city states were a group of city-states that existed from c. 2nd century BC to c. mid-11th century in present-day Upper Burma (Myanmar). The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu, the earliest inhabitants of Burma of whom records are extant. The thousand-year period, often referred to as the Pyu millennium, linked the Bronze Age to the beginning of the classical states period when the Pagan Kingdom emerged in the late 9th century.<br/><br/> The city-states—five major walled cities and several smaller towns have been excavated—were all located in the three main irrigated regions of Upper Burma: the Mu valley, the Kyaukse plains and Minbu region, around the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers. Part of an overland trade route between China and India, the Pyu realm gradually expanded south. Halin, founded in the 1st century AD at the northern edge of Upper Burma, was the largest and most important city until around the 7th or 8th century when it was superseded by Sri Ksetra (near modern Pyay) at the southern edge. Twice as large as Halin, Sri Ksetra was the largest and most influential Pyu center.<br/><br/> The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organization. The Pyu calendar, based on the Buddhist calendar, later became the Burmese calendar. Latest scholarship, though yet not settled, suggests that the Pyu script, based on the Indian Brahmi script, may have been the source of the Burmese script.
The Pyu city states were a group of city-states that existed from c. 2nd century BC to c. mid-11th century in present-day Upper Burma (Myanmar). The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu, the earliest inhabitants of Burma of whom records are extant. The thousand-year period, often referred to as the Pyu millennium, linked the Bronze Age to the beginning of the classical states period when the Pagan Kingdom emerged in the late 9th century.<br/><br/> The city-states—five major walled cities and several smaller towns have been excavated—were all located in the three main irrigated regions of Upper Burma: the Mu valley, the Kyaukse plains and Minbu region, around the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers. Part of an overland trade route between China and India, the Pyu realm gradually expanded south. Halin, founded in the 1st century AD at the northern edge of Upper Burma, was the largest and most important city until around the 7th or 8th century when it was superseded by Sri Ksetra (near modern Pyay) at the southern edge. Twice as large as Halin, Sri Ksetra was the largest and most influential Pyu center.<br/><br/> The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organization. The Pyu calendar, based on the Buddhist calendar, later became the Burmese calendar. Latest scholarship, though yet not settled, suggests that the Pyu script, based on the Indian Brahmi script, may have been the source of the Burmese script.
The Pyu city states were a group of city-states that existed from c. 2nd century BC to c. mid-11th century in present-day Upper Burma (Myanmar). The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu, the earliest inhabitants of Burma of whom records are extant. The thousand-year period, often referred to as the Pyu millennium, linked the Bronze Age to the beginning of the classical states period when the Pagan Kingdom emerged in the late 9th century.<br/><br/> The city-states—five major walled cities and several smaller towns have been excavated—were all located in the three main irrigated regions of Upper Burma: the Mu valley, the Kyaukse plains and Minbu region, around the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers. Part of an overland trade route between China and India, the Pyu realm gradually expanded south. Halin, founded in the 1st century AD at the northern edge of Upper Burma, was the largest and most important city until around the 7th or 8th century when it was superseded by Sri Ksetra (near modern Pyay) at the southern edge. Twice as large as Halin, Sri Ksetra was the largest and most influential Pyu center.<br/><br/> The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organization. The Pyu calendar, based on the Buddhist calendar, later became the Burmese calendar. Latest scholarship, though yet not settled, suggests that the Pyu script, based on the Indian Brahmi script, may have been the source of the Burmese script.
The Pyu city states were a group of city-states that existed from c. 2nd century BC to c. mid-11th century in present-day Upper Burma (Myanmar). The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu, the earliest inhabitants of Burma of whom records are extant. The thousand-year period, often referred to as the Pyu millennium, linked the Bronze Age to the beginning of the classical states period when the Pagan Kingdom emerged in the late 9th century.<br/><br/> The city-states—five major walled cities and several smaller towns have been excavated—were all located in the three main irrigated regions of Upper Burma: the Mu valley, the Kyaukse plains and Minbu region, around the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers. Part of an overland trade route between China and India, the Pyu realm gradually expanded south. Halin, founded in the 1st century AD at the northern edge of Upper Burma, was the largest and most important city until around the 7th or 8th century when it was superseded by Sri Ksetra (near modern Pyay) at the southern edge. Twice as large as Halin, Sri Ksetra was the largest and most influential Pyu center.<br/><br/> The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organization. The Pyu calendar, based on the Buddhist calendar, later became the Burmese calendar. Latest scholarship, though yet not settled, suggests that the Pyu script, based on the Indian Brahmi script, may have been the source of the Burmese script.
This anonymous gold coinage appears to have been initiated shortly before Rajaraja Chola invaded Lanka in 990 CE, and struck through the period when the Cholas dominated the island (1017-1070), and continued by closely similar coins struck for Vijayabahu (1055-1110) after he re-established Sinhala independence in 1070.<br/><br/> Like other Lankan coins from around the 11th Century no date is indicated. It is not certain whether the Kahavanu was introduced at Ruhuna, the region in the south of the island to which the Sinhala court had been obliged to move as a result of Rajaraja's conquests.
This anonymous gold coinage appears to have been initiated shortly before Rajaraja Chola invaded Lanka in 990 CE, and struck through the period when the Cholas dominated the island (1017-1070), and continued by closely similar coins struck for Vijayabahu (1055-1110) after he re-established Sinhala independence in 1070.<br/><br/> Like other Lankan coins from around the 11th Century no date is indicated. It is not certain whether the Kahavanu was introduced at Ruhuna, the region in the south of the island to which the Sinhala court had been obliged to move as a result of Rajaraja's conquests.
This anonymous gold coinage appears to have been initiated shortly before Rajaraja Chola invaded Lanka in 990 CE, and struck through the period when the Cholas dominated the island (1017-1070), and continued by closely similar coins struck for Vijayabahu (1055-1110) after he re-established Sinhala independence in 1070.<br/><br/> Like other Lankan coins from around the 11th Century no date is indicated. It is not certain whether the Kahavanu was introduced at Ruhuna, the region in the south of the island to which the Sinhala court had been obliged to move as a result of Rajaraja's conquests.
This anonymous gold coinage appears to have been initiated shortly before Rajaraja Chola invaded Lanka in 990 CE, and struck through the period when the Cholas dominated the island (1017-1070), and continued by closely similar coins struck for Vijayabahu (1055-1110) after he re-established Sinhala independence in 1070.<br/><br/> Like other Lankan coins from around the 11th Century no date is indicated. It is not certain whether the Kahavanu was introduced at Ruhuna, the region in the south of the island to which the Sinhala court had been obliged to move as a result of Rajaraja's conquests.
This anonymous gold coinage appears to have been initiated shortly before Rajaraja Chola invaded Lanka in 990 CE, and struck through the period when the Cholas dominated the island (1017-1070), and continued by closely similar coins struck for Vijayabahu (1055-1110) after he re-established Sinhala independence in 1070.<br/><br/> Like other Lankan coins from around the 11th Century no date is indicated. It is not certain whether the Kahavanu was introduced at Ruhuna, the region in the south of the island to which the Sinhala court had been obliged to move as a result of Rajaraja's conquests.
Queen Lilavati, also known as Leelawathi, was the second woman in Sri Lankan history to rule as sovereign in her own right.<br/><br/> Lilavati rose to prominence as the wife of Parakramabahu the Great, the king of Polonnaruwa. Being of royal descent herself, she then ruled as sole monarch on three different occasions in the near-anarchy following Parakramabahu's death, with the backing of various generals. The primary source for her life is the Pali chronicle Culavamsa.<br/><br/> Polonnaruwa, the second most ancient of Sri Lanka's kingdoms, was first declared the capital city by King Vijayabahu I, who defeated the Chola invaders in 1070 CE to reunite the country under a national leader.
Queen Lilavati, also known as Leelawathi, was the second woman in Sri Lankan history to rule as sovereign in her own right.<br/><br/> Lilavati rose to prominence as the wife of Parakramabahu the Great, the king of Polonnaruwa. Being of royal descent herself, she then ruled as sole monarch on three different occasions in the near-anarchy following Parakramabahu's death, with the backing of various generals. The primary source for her life is the Pali chronicle Culavamsa.<br/><br/> Polonnaruwa, the second most ancient of Sri Lanka's kingdoms, was first declared the capital city by King Vijayabahu I, who defeated the Chola invaders in 1070 CE to reunite the country under a national leader.
Quanzhou was established in 718 during the Tang Dynasty (618–907). In those days, Guangzhou was China's greatest seaport, but this status would be surpassed later by Quanzhou. During the Song Dynasty (960–1279) and Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368), Quanzhou was one of the world's largest seaports, hosting a large community of foreign-born inhabitants from across the Eurasian world.<br/><br/> Due to its reputation, Quanzhou has been called the starting point of the Silk Road via the sea. From the Arabic name form of the city, Zayton, the word satin would be minted. In The Travels of Marco Polo, Quanzhou (called Zayton, T'swan-Chau or Chin-Cheu) was listed as the departure point for Marco Polo's expedition to escort the 17-year-old Mongol princess bride Kököchin to her new husband in the Persian Ilkhanate.
Quanzhou was established in 718 during the Tang Dynasty (618–907). In those days, Guangzhou was China's greatest seaport, but this status would be surpassed later by Quanzhou. During the Song Dynasty (960–1279) and Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368), Quanzhou was one of the world's largest seaports, hosting a large community of foreign-born inhabitants from across the Eurasian world.<br/><br/> Due to its reputation, Quanzhou has been called the starting point of the Silk Road via the sea. From the Arabic name form of the city, Zayton, the word satin would be minted. In The Travels of Marco Polo, Quanzhou (called Zayton, T'swan-Chau or Chin-Cheu) was listed as the departure point for Marco Polo's expedition to escort the 17-year-old Mongol princess bride Kököchin to her new husband in the Persian Ilkhanate.
Palestine (Arabic: فلسطين‎ Filasṭīn, Falasṭīn, Filisṭīn; Greek: Παλαιστίνη, Palaistinē; Latin: Palaestina; Hebrew: פלשתינה Palestina) is a n ame given to the geographic region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The region is also known as the Land of Israel (Hebrew: ארץ־ישראל Eretz-Yisra'el), the Holy Land and the Southern Levant.<br/><br/> In 1832 Palestine was conquered by Muhammad Ali's Egypt, but in 1840 Britain intervened and returned control of the Levant to the Ottomans in return for further capitulations. The end of the 19th century saw the beginning of Zionist immigration and the Revival of the Hebrew language. The movement was publicly supported by Great Britain during World War I with the Balfour Declaration of 1917. The British captured Jerusalem a month later, and were formally awarded a mandate in 1922.<br/><br/> In 1947, following World War II and the Holocaust, the British Government announced their desire to terminate the Mandate, and the United Nations General Assembly voted to partition the territory into a Jewish state and an Arab state. The Jewish leadership accepted the proposal but the Arab Higher Committee rejected it; a civil war began immediately, and the State of Israel was declared in 1948.<br/><br/> The 1948 Palestinian exodus, known in Arabic as the Nakba (Arabic: النكبة‎, an-Nakbah, 'The Catastrophe') occurred when approximately 711,000 to 725,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes, during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War during which Israel captured and incorporated a further 26% of Palestinian territory.<br/><br/> In the course of the Six Day War in June 1967, Israel captured the remainder of historic Palestine and began a continuing policy of Israeli settlement and annexation.
Palestine (Arabic: فلسطين‎ Filasṭīn, Falasṭīn, Filisṭīn; Greek: Παλαιστίνη, Palaistinē; Latin: Palaestina; Hebrew: פלשתינה Palestina) is a n ame given to the geographic region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The region is also known as the Land of Israel (Hebrew: ארץ־ישראל Eretz-Yisra'el), the Holy Land and the Southern Levant.<br/><br/> In 1832 Palestine was conquered by Muhammad Ali's Egypt, but in 1840 Britain intervened and returned control of the Levant to the Ottomans in return for further capitulations. The end of the 19th century saw the beginning of Zionist immigration and the Revival of the Hebrew language. The movement was publicly supported by Great Britain during World War I with the Balfour Declaration of 1917. The British captured Jerusalem a month later, and were formally awarded a mandate in 1922.<br/><br/> In 1947, following World War II and the Holocaust, the British Government announced their desire to terminate the Mandate, and the United Nations General Assembly voted to partition the territory into a Jewish state and an Arab state. The Jewish leadership accepted the proposal but the Arab Higher Committee rejected it; a civil war began immediately, and the State of Israel was declared in 1948.<br/><br/> The 1948 Palestinian exodus, known in Arabic as the Nakba (Arabic: النكبة‎, an-Nakbah, 'The Catastrophe') occurred when approximately 711,000 to 725,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes, during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War during which Israel captured and incorporated a further 26% of Palestinian territory.<br/><br/> In the course of the Six Day War in June 1967, Israel captured the remainder of historic Palestine and began a continuing policy of Israeli settlement and annexation.
Palestine (Arabic: فلسطين‎ Filasṭīn, Falasṭīn, Filisṭīn; Greek: Παλαιστίνη, Palaistinē; Latin: Palaestina; Hebrew: פלשתינה Palestina) is a n ame given to the geographic region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The region is also known as the Land of Israel (Hebrew: ארץ־ישראל Eretz-Yisra'el), the Holy Land and the Southern Levant.<br/><br/> In 1832 Palestine was conquered by Muhammad Ali's Egypt, but in 1840 Britain intervened and returned control of the Levant to the Ottomans in return for further capitulations. The end of the 19th century saw the beginning of Zionist immigration and the Revival of the Hebrew language. The movement was publicly supported by Great Britain during World War I with the Balfour Declaration of 1917. The British captured Jerusalem a month later, and were formally awarded a mandate in 1922.<br/><br/> In 1947, following World War II and the Holocaust, the British Government announced their desire to terminate the Mandate, and the United Nations General Assembly voted to partition the territory into a Jewish state and an Arab state. The Jewish leadership accepted the proposal but the Arab Higher Committee rejected it; a civil war began immediately, and the State of Israel was declared in 1948.<br/><br/> The 1948 Palestinian exodus, known in Arabic as the Nakba (Arabic: النكبة‎, an-Nakbah, 'The Catastrophe') occurred when approximately 711,000 to 725,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes, during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War during which Israel captured and incorporated a further 26% of Palestinian territory.<br/><br/> In the course of the Six Day War in June 1967, Israel captured the remainder of historic Palestine and began a continuing policy of Israeli settlement and annexation.
The Nabataeans, also Nabateans (Arabic: الأنباط‎ al-ʾAnbāṭ), were ancient peoples of Jordan, whose oasis settlements in the time of Josephus (AD 37 – c. 100), gave the name of Nabatene to the borderland between Syria and Arabia, from the Euphrates to the Red Sea. Their loosely-controlled trading network, which centered on strings of oases that they controlled, where agriculture was intensively practiced in limited areas, and on the routes that linked them, had no securely defined boundaries in the surrounding desert.<br/><br/> Trajan conquered the Nabataean kingdom, annexing it to the Roman Empire, where their individual culture, easily identified by their characteristic finely-potted painted ceramics, became dispersed in the general Greco-Roman culture and was eventually lost.
This anonymous gold coinage appears to have been initiated shortly before Rajaraja Chola invaded Lanka in 990 CE, and struck through the period when the Cholas dominated the island (1017-1070), and continued by closely similar coins struck for Vijayabahu (1055-1110) after he re-established Sinhala independence in 1070.<br/><br/> Like other Lankan coins from around the 11th Century no date is indicated. It is not certain whether the Kahavanu was introduced at Ruhuna, the region in the south of the island to which the Sinhala court had been obliged to move as a result of Rajaraja's conquests.
Rakhine State ( formerly Arakan) is a state of Myanmar. Situated on the western coast, it is bordered by Chin State in the north, Magway Region, Bago Region and Ayeyarwady Region in the east, the Bay of Bengal to the west, and the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh to the northwest.<br/><br/> The history of the region of Rakhine / Arakan is divided into the Dhanyawadi, Waithali, Laymro and Mrauk U periods. Mrauk U was conquered by the Konbaung dynasty of Burma in 1784-85, after which Rakhine became part of the Konbaung kingdom of Burma.<br/><br/> In 1824, the first Anglo-Burmese war erupted and in 1826, Rakhine (alongside Tanintharyi / Tenasserim) was ceded to the British as reparation by the Burmese to the British. Rakhine thus became part of the province of Burma of British India.<br/><br/> In 1948, Burma was given independence and Rakhine became part of the new federal republic.
A major battleground, Burma was devastated during World War II. By March 1942, within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942.<br/><br/> Wingate's British Chindits were formed into long-range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines. A similar American unit, Merrill's Marauders, followed the Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943. Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. However, the battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma.<br/><br/> Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese, some Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, also served in the British Burma Army. The Burma National Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944, but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945.
A major battleground, Burma was devastated during World War II. By March 1942, within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942.<br/><br/> Wingate's British Chindits were formed into long-range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines. A similar American unit, Merrill's Marauders, followed the Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943. Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. However, the battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma.<br/><br/> Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese, some Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, also served in the British Burma Army. The Burma National Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944, but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945.
Funan, Phù Nam in Vietnamese, Fúnán in pinyin, was the Chinese name for an ancient kingdom located around the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and its most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats representing the Wu Kingdom of Nanjing who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century A.D.; however, the name 'Funan' is not found in any texts of local origin, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their country.<br/><br/> What is known about Funan is from Chinese and Cham sources dating from the 3rd to 6th centuries and from archaeological excavations. From the side of archeology, we know that Funan must have been a powerful trading state, as evidenced by the discovery of Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods during excavations at the ancient trading depot of Oc Eo (Vietnamese: Óc Eo) in southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Oc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.
Funan, Phù Nam in Vietnamese, Fúnán in pinyin, was the Chinese name for an ancient kingdom located around the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and its most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats representing the Wu Kingdom of Nanjing who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century A.D.; however, the name 'Funan' is not found in any texts of local origin, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their country.<br/><br/> What is known about Funan is from Chinese and Cham sources dating from the 3rd to 6th centuries and from archaeological excavations. From the side of archeology, we know that Funan must have been a powerful trading state, as evidenced by the discovery of Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods during excavations at the ancient trading depot of Oc Eo (Vietnamese: Óc Eo) in southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Oc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.
Funan, Phù Nam in Vietnamese, Fúnán in pinyin, was the Chinese name for an ancient kingdom located around the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and its most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats representing the Wu Kingdom of Nanjing who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century A.D.; however, the name 'Funan' is not found in any texts of local origin, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their country.<br/><br/> What is known about Funan is from Chinese and Cham sources dating from the 3rd to 6th centuries and from archaeological excavations. From the side of archeology, we know that Funan must have been a powerful trading state, as evidenced by the discovery of Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods during excavations at the ancient trading depot of Oc Eo (Vietnamese: Óc Eo) in southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Oc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.
Funan, Phù Nam in Vietnamese, Fúnán in pinyin, was the Chinese name for an ancient kingdom located around the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and its most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats representing the Wu Kingdom of Nanjing who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century A.D.; however, the name 'Funan' is not found in any texts of local origin, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their country.<br/><br/> What is known about Funan is from Chinese and Cham sources dating from the 3rd to 6th centuries and from archaeological excavations. From the side of archeology, we know that Funan must have been a powerful trading state, as evidenced by the discovery of Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods during excavations at the ancient trading depot of Oc Eo (Vietnamese: Óc Eo) in southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Oc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.
Funan, Phù Nam in Vietnamese, Fúnán in pinyin, was the Chinese name for an ancient kingdom located around the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and its most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats representing the Wu Kingdom of Nanjing who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century A.D.; however, the name 'Funan' is not found in any texts of local origin, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their country.<br/><br/> What is known about Funan is from Chinese and Cham sources dating from the 3rd to 6th centuries and from archaeological excavations. From the side of archeology, we know that Funan must have been a powerful trading state, as evidenced by the discovery of Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods during excavations at the ancient trading depot of Oc Eo (Vietnamese: Óc Eo) in southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Oc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.
Funan, Phù Nam in Vietnamese, Fúnán in pinyin, was the Chinese name for an ancient kingdom located around the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and its most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats representing the Wu Kingdom of Nanjing who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century A.D.; however, the name 'Funan' is not found in any texts of local origin, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their country.<br/><br/> What is known about Funan is from Chinese and Cham sources dating from the 3rd to 6th centuries and from archaeological excavations. From the side of archeology, we know that Funan must have been a powerful trading state, as evidenced by the discovery of Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods during excavations at the ancient trading depot of Oc Eo (Vietnamese: Óc Eo) in southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Oc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.
Funan, Phù Nam in Vietnamese, Fúnán in pinyin, was the Chinese name for an ancient kingdom located around the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and its most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats representing the Wu Kingdom of Nanjing who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century A.D.; however, the name 'Funan' is not found in any texts of local origin, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their country.<br/><br/> What is known about Funan is from Chinese and Cham sources dating from the 3rd to 6th centuries and from archaeological excavations. From the side of archeology, we know that Funan must have been a powerful trading state, as evidenced by the discovery of Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods during excavations at the ancient trading depot of Oc Eo (Vietnamese: Óc Eo) in southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Oc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.
Funan, Phù Nam in Vietnamese, Fúnán in pinyin, was the Chinese name for an ancient kingdom located around the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and its most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats representing the Wu Kingdom of Nanjing who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century A.D.; however, the name 'Funan' is not found in any texts of local origin, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their country.<br/><br/> What is known about Funan is from Chinese and Cham sources dating from the 3rd to 6th centuries and from archaeological excavations. From the side of archeology, we know that Funan must have been a powerful trading state, as evidenced by the discovery of Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods during excavations at the ancient trading depot of Oc Eo (Vietnamese: Óc Eo) in southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Oc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.
The Shahi (Devanagari: शाही), also called Shahiya dynasties ruled one of the middle kingdoms of India which included portions of the Kabulistan and the old province of Gandhara (now in northern Pakistan), from the decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century to the early 9th century.<br/><br/> The kingdom was known as 'Kabul Shahi' (Kabul-shāhān or Ratbél-shāhān in Persian کابلشاهان یا رتبیل شاهان) between 565 and 879 CE when they had Kapisa and Kabul as their capitals, and later as Hindu Shahi.<br/><br/> The Shahis of Kabul / Gandhara are generally divided into the two eras of the so-called Buddhist-Shahis and the so-called Hindu-Shahis, with the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around 870 CE.
A gold lạng of Tự Đức, fourth emperor of the Nguyễn Dynasty of Vietnam, 1840–1847.<br/><br/> Emperor Tự Đức (22 September 1829 – 17 July 1883) (full name: Nguyễn Phúc Hồng Nhậm, also Nguyen Phuc Thi) was the fourth emperor of the Nguyễn Dynasty of Vietnam and reigned from 1847–1883.<br/><br/> The son of Emperor Thiệu Trị, Prince Nguyễn Phúc Hồng Nhậm succeeded his father with the reigning title of Tự Đức, but family troubles caused his era to have a violent start. Thiệu Trị had passed over his more moderate eldest son, Hồng Bảo, to give the throne to Tự Đức, known for his staunch Confucianism and opposition to foreigners and innovation. As a result, and due to the repressive policies of the previous Nguyễn Dynasty emperor, there was now a great deal of dissatisfaction with Nguyễn rule and a legitimate royal figure to rally this opposition.
A Gold lang coin of Thiệu Trị; third emperor of the Nguyễn Dynasty (r.1840–1847).<br/><br/> Nguyễn Phúc Miên Tông (6 June 1807 – 4 November 1847) was the third emperor of the Vietnamese Nguyễn Dynasty taking the era name of Thiệu Trị. He was the eldest son of Emperor Minh Mạng, and reigned from 14 February 1841 until his death on 4 November 1847.<br/><br/> Emperor Thiệu Trị was much like his father Minh Mạng and carried on his conservative policies of isolationism and the entrenchment of Confucianism. Highly educated in the Confucian tradition, Thiệu Trị had some curiosity about the West, but like his father was very suspicious of all non-Chinese outsiders.
Flying dragon. Phi long (coin) of Minh Mạng, second emperor of the Nguyễn Dynasty of Vietnam, minted 1833.<br/><br/> Minh Mạng (1791–1841) was the second emperor of the Nguyen Dynasty of Vietnam, reigning from 14 February 1820 until 20 January 1841. He was a younger son of Emperor Gia Long, whose eldest son, Crown Prince Canh, had died in 1801. He was well known for his opposition to French involvement in Vietnam and his rigid Confucian orthodoxy. As Gia Long aged, he took on a more isolationist foreign policy, and as a result favored Minh Mang especially for his outlook.<br/><br/> Minh Mang was a classicist who was regarded as one of Vietnam's most scholarly monarchs. He was known as a poet and was regarded as an emperor who cared sincerely about his country and paid great attention to its rule, to the extent of micromanaging certain policies. He pursued a sceptical policy to Christian missionaries, often trying to inhibit their activities by administrative means, and later by explicitly banning proselytisation.
Yuan dynasty banknote with its printing plate, 1287, utilising Chinese characters and the phags-pa Tibetan script adapted from Tibetan for Use with Mongolian on the orders of Kublai Khan, c. 1269.
The economy of the Anuradhapura Kingdom was based mainly on agriculture.<br/><br/> Currency was often used for settling judicial fines, taxes and payments for goods or services. However, remuneration for services to the king, officials and temples were often made in the form of land revenue.<br/><br/> The oldest coins found at Anuradhapura date up to 200 BCE. These earliest coins were punch marked rectangular pieces of silver known as kahavanu. These eventually became circular in shape, which were in turn followed by die struck coins. Uncoined metals, particularly gold and silver, were used for trading as well. Patterns of elephants, horses, swastika and Dharmacakra were commonly imprinted on the coins of this period.
South Arabia as a general term refers to several regions as currently recognized, in chief the Republic of Yemen; yet it has historically also included Najran, Jizan, and 'Asir which are presently in Saudi Arabia, and Dhofar presently in Oman. The frontiers of South Arabia as linguistically conceived would include the historic peoples speaking the related South Arabian languages as well as neighboring dialects of Arabic, and their descendants. Anciently there was a South Arabian alphabet, which was borrowed by Ethiopia. South Arabia as generally conceived would include the lands inhabited by peoples partaking of its distinctive traditions and culture, which overlap recently demarcated political boundaries.<br/><br/> Yemen or al-yaman means 'the south'. One etymology derives Yemen from yamin the 'right side' as the south is on the right when facing the sunrise; yet this etymology is considered suspect. Another derives Yemen from yumn meaning 'felicity' as the region is fertile; indeed the Romans called it Arabia Felix. In an ancient, traditional Arabian genealogy, the people of the peninsula are divided between north and south, those of the north descending from Ishmael and Adnan (from whom Muhammad descended), and those of South Arabia being the descendants of Qahtan or Joktan (Yoqtan) and Jokshan.