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10 <i>dirham</i> Islamic State coin dated 1437 Hijri (Islamic calendar) or 2016 CE, with Al-Aqsa Mosque on the obverse.<br/><br/> The Arabic text on the right image shows 'Islamic State' for the first line, 1 <i>dirham</i> (smaller denomination of the dinar) for the second line, 2 grams for the third line and 'A Caliphate Based on the Doctrine of the Prophet' for the fourth line.
Cleopatra VII Philopator (69 – August 12, 30 BCE), known to history simply as Cleopatra, was the last active pharaoh of Ptolemaic Egypt, shortly survived as pharaoh by her son Caesarion. After her reign, Egypt became a province of the then-recently established Roman Empire.<br/><br/> Cleopatra was a member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, a family of Macedonian Greek origin that ruled Egypt after Alexander the Great's death during the Hellenistic period. The Ptolemies, throughout their dynasty, spoke Greek and refused to speak Egyptian, which is the reason that Greek as well as Egyptian languages were used on official court documents such as the Rosetta Stone. By contrast, Cleopatra did learn to speak Egyptian and represented herself as the reincarnation of an Egyptian goddess, Isis.<br/><br/> Cleopatra originally ruled jointly with her father, Ptolemy XII Auletes, and later with her brothers, Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, whom she married according to Egyptian custom, but eventually she became sole ruler. As pharaoh she consummated a liaison with Julius Caesar that solidified her grip on the throne. She later elevated her son with Caesar, Caesarion, to co-ruler in name.<br/><br/> After Caesar's assassination in 44 BCE, she aligned with Mark Antony in opposition to Caesar's legal heir, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (later known as Augustus). With Antony, she bore the twins Cleopatra Selene II and Alexander Helios, and another son, Ptolemy Philadelphus. After losing the Battle of Actium to Octavian's forces, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra followed suit. According to tradition, she killed herself by means of an asp bite on August 12, 30 BCE. She was outlived by Caesarion, who was declared pharaoh by his supporters, but soon killed on Octavian's orders. Egypt then became the Roman province of Aegyptus.
5 <i>dinar</i> Islamic State coin dated 1437 Hijri (Islamic calendar) or 2016 CE, with a map of the world on the obverse.<br/><br/> The Arabic text on the right image shows 'Islamic State' for the first line, Gold 21 for the second line, 5 <i>dinar</i> for the third line, 21.25 grams for the fourth line and 'A Caliphate Based on the Doctrine of the Prophet' for the fifth line.
Aemilianus (Latin: Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus Augustus; c. 207/213 – 253 CE), also known as Aemilian, was Roman Emperor for three months in 253 CE.<br/><br/> Commander of the Moesian troops, he obtained an important victory against the invading Goths and was, for this reason, acclaimed Emperor by his army. He then moved quickly to Italy, where he defeated Emperor Trebonianus Gallus, only to be killed by his own men when another general, Valerian, proclaimed himself Emperor and moved against Aemilian with a larger army.
20 <i>fuluus</i> Islamic State coin dated 1437 Hijri (Islamic calendar) or 2016 CE, with palm trees on the obverse.<br/><br/> The Arabic text on the reverse shows 'Islamic State' for the first line, 20 <i>fuluus</i> (smaller denomination of the dinar) for the second line, 20 grams for the third line and 'A Caliphate Based on the Doctrine of the Prophet' for the fourth line.
1 <i>dirham</i> Islamic State coin dated 1437 Hijri (Islamic calendar) or 2016 CE, with spear and shield on the obverse.<br/><br/> The Arabic text on the obverse shows 'Islamic State' for the first line, 1 <i>dirham</i> (smaller denomination of the dinar) for the second line, 2 grams for the third line and 'A Caliphate Based on the Doctrine of the Prophet' for the fourth line.
The Japanese Empire occupied the Dutch East Indies, today Indonesia, during World War II from March 1942 until after the end of the War in 1945. The period was one of the most critical in Indonesian history. Under German occupation, the Netherlands had little ability to defend its colony against the Japanese army, and less than three months after the first attacks on Borneo the Japanese navy and army overran Dutch and allied forces.<br/><br/> Initially, most Indonesians optimistically and even joyfully welcomed the Japanese as liberators from their Dutch colonial masters. This sentiment changed as Indonesians were expected to endure more hardship for the war effort. In 1944–45, Allied troops largely by-passed Indonesia and did not fight their way into the most populous parts such as Java and Sumatra. As such, most of Indonesia was still under Japanese occupation at the time of their surrender in August 1945.
The Japanese Empire occupied the Dutch East Indies, today Indonesia, during World War II from March 1942 until after the end of the War in 1945. The period was one of the most critical in Indonesian history. Under German occupation, the Netherlands had little ability to defend its colony against the Japanese army, and less than three months after the first attacks on Borneo the Japanese navy and army overran Dutch and allied forces.<br/><br/> Initially, most Indonesians optimistically and even joyfully welcomed the Japanese as liberators from their Dutch colonial masters. This sentiment changed as Indonesians were expected to endure more hardship for the war effort. In 1944–45, Allied troops largely by-passed Indonesia and did not fight their way into the most populous parts such as Java and Sumatra. As such, most of Indonesia was still under Japanese occupation at the time of their surrender in August 1945.
Óc Eo is an archaeological site in Thoại Sơn District in southern An Giang Province, Vietnam, in the Mekong River Delta region of Vietnam. It is also one of the modern day communes of Vietnam. Óc Eo may have been a busy port of the kingdom of Funan between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. Scholars use the term 'Óc Eo Culture' to refer to the ancient material culture of the Mekong Delta region that is typified by the artifacts recovered at Óc Eo through archeological investigation.<br/><br/> The remains found at Óc Eo include pottery, tools, jewelry, casts for making jewelry, coins (including coins from the Roman Empire), and religious statues. Many of the remains have been collected and are on exhibition in the Museum of Vietnamese History in Ho Chi Minh City.
Abdulhamid II (Ottoman Turkish: عبد الحميد ثانی `Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i sânî, Turkish: İkinci Abdülhamit) (22 September 1842 – 10 February 1918) was the 99th caliph of Islam and the 34th sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He was the last Sultan to exert effective control over the Ottoman Empire. He oversaw a period of decline in the power and extent of the Empire, ruling from 31 August 1876 until he was deposed on 27 April 1909. He was succeeded by Mehmed V. His deposition following the Young Turk Revolution was hailed by most Ottoman citizens, who welcomed the return to constitutional rule.<br/><br/>During his tenure, he was responsible for the modernization of the Ottoman Empire, and exerted maximum control over its affairs. Changes included: rationalization of the bureaucracy; the ambitious Hijaz Railway project; the creation of a modern system of personnel records (1896); establishment of an elaborate system for population registration and control over the press; systematization of officials salaries (1880); and the first modern law school (1898). Between the period 1871-1908, the Sublime Porte (Istanbul) thus reached a new degree of organizational elaboration and articulation.
Mustafa III (Ottoman Turkish: مصطفى ثالث Muṣṭafā-yi sālis) (January 28/18, 1717 – January 21, 1774) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1757 to 1774. He was a son of Sultan Ahmed III (1703–30) and was succeeded by his brother Abdul Hamid I (1774–89). He was born in Edirne. His mother was Âminā Mihr-î-Shâh Sultan.
Mustafa III (Ottoman Turkish: مصطفى ثالث Muṣṭafā-yi sālis) (January 28/18, 1717 – January 21, 1774) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1757 to 1774. He was a son of Sultan Ahmed III (1703–30) and was succeeded by his brother Abdul Hamid I (1774–89). He was born in Edirne. His mother was Âminā Mihr-î-Shâh Sultan.
The Pyu city states were a group of city-states that existed from c. 2nd century BC to c. mid-11th century in present-day Upper Burma (Myanmar). The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu, the earliest inhabitants of Burma of whom records are extant. The thousand-year period, often referred to as the Pyu millennium, linked the Bronze Age to the beginning of the classical states period when the Pagan Kingdom emerged in the late 9th century.<br/><br/> The city-states—five major walled cities and several smaller towns have been excavated—were all located in the three main irrigated regions of Upper Burma: the Mu valley, the Kyaukse plains and Minbu region, around the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers. Part of an overland trade route between China and India, the Pyu realm gradually expanded south. Halin, founded in the 1st century AD at the northern edge of Upper Burma, was the largest and most important city until around the 7th or 8th century when it was superseded by Sri Ksetra (near modern Pyay) at the southern edge. Twice as large as Halin, Sri Ksetra was the largest and most influential Pyu center.<br/><br/> The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organization. The Pyu calendar, based on the Buddhist calendar, later became the Burmese calendar. Latest scholarship, though yet not settled, suggests that the Pyu script, based on the Indian Brahmi script, may have been the source of the Burmese script.
The Pyu city states were a group of city-states that existed from c. 2nd century BC to c. mid-11th century in present-day Upper Burma (Myanmar). The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu, the earliest inhabitants of Burma of whom records are extant. The thousand-year period, often referred to as the Pyu millennium, linked the Bronze Age to the beginning of the classical states period when the Pagan Kingdom emerged in the late 9th century.<br/><br/> The city-states—five major walled cities and several smaller towns have been excavated—were all located in the three main irrigated regions of Upper Burma: the Mu valley, the Kyaukse plains and Minbu region, around the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers. Part of an overland trade route between China and India, the Pyu realm gradually expanded south. Halin, founded in the 1st century AD at the northern edge of Upper Burma, was the largest and most important city until around the 7th or 8th century when it was superseded by Sri Ksetra (near modern Pyay) at the southern edge. Twice as large as Halin, Sri Ksetra was the largest and most influential Pyu center.<br/><br/> The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organization. The Pyu calendar, based on the Buddhist calendar, later became the Burmese calendar. Latest scholarship, though yet not settled, suggests that the Pyu script, based on the Indian Brahmi script, may have been the source of the Burmese script.
The Pyu city states were a group of city-states that existed from c. 2nd century BC to c. mid-11th century in present-day Upper Burma (Myanmar). The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu, the earliest inhabitants of Burma of whom records are extant. The thousand-year period, often referred to as the Pyu millennium, linked the Bronze Age to the beginning of the classical states period when the Pagan Kingdom emerged in the late 9th century.<br/><br/> The city-states—five major walled cities and several smaller towns have been excavated—were all located in the three main irrigated regions of Upper Burma: the Mu valley, the Kyaukse plains and Minbu region, around the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers. Part of an overland trade route between China and India, the Pyu realm gradually expanded south. Halin, founded in the 1st century AD at the northern edge of Upper Burma, was the largest and most important city until around the 7th or 8th century when it was superseded by Sri Ksetra (near modern Pyay) at the southern edge. Twice as large as Halin, Sri Ksetra was the largest and most influential Pyu center.<br/><br/> The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organization. The Pyu calendar, based on the Buddhist calendar, later became the Burmese calendar. Latest scholarship, though yet not settled, suggests that the Pyu script, based on the Indian Brahmi script, may have been the source of the Burmese script.
The Pyu city states were a group of city-states that existed from c. 2nd century BC to c. mid-11th century in present-day Upper Burma (Myanmar). The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu, the earliest inhabitants of Burma of whom records are extant. The thousand-year period, often referred to as the Pyu millennium, linked the Bronze Age to the beginning of the classical states period when the Pagan Kingdom emerged in the late 9th century.<br/><br/> The city-states—five major walled cities and several smaller towns have been excavated—were all located in the three main irrigated regions of Upper Burma: the Mu valley, the Kyaukse plains and Minbu region, around the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers. Part of an overland trade route between China and India, the Pyu realm gradually expanded south. Halin, founded in the 1st century AD at the northern edge of Upper Burma, was the largest and most important city until around the 7th or 8th century when it was superseded by Sri Ksetra (near modern Pyay) at the southern edge. Twice as large as Halin, Sri Ksetra was the largest and most influential Pyu center.<br/><br/> The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organization. The Pyu calendar, based on the Buddhist calendar, later became the Burmese calendar. Latest scholarship, though yet not settled, suggests that the Pyu script, based on the Indian Brahmi script, may have been the source of the Burmese script.
This anonymous gold coinage appears to have been initiated shortly before Rajaraja Chola invaded Lanka in 990 CE, and struck through the period when the Cholas dominated the island (1017-1070), and continued by closely similar coins struck for Vijayabahu (1055-1110) after he re-established Sinhala independence in 1070.<br/><br/> Like other Lankan coins from around the 11th Century no date is indicated. It is not certain whether the Kahavanu was introduced at Ruhuna, the region in the south of the island to which the Sinhala court had been obliged to move as a result of Rajaraja's conquests.
This anonymous gold coinage appears to have been initiated shortly before Rajaraja Chola invaded Lanka in 990 CE, and struck through the period when the Cholas dominated the island (1017-1070), and continued by closely similar coins struck for Vijayabahu (1055-1110) after he re-established Sinhala independence in 1070.<br/><br/> Like other Lankan coins from around the 11th Century no date is indicated. It is not certain whether the Kahavanu was introduced at Ruhuna, the region in the south of the island to which the Sinhala court had been obliged to move as a result of Rajaraja's conquests.
This anonymous gold coinage appears to have been initiated shortly before Rajaraja Chola invaded Lanka in 990 CE, and struck through the period when the Cholas dominated the island (1017-1070), and continued by closely similar coins struck for Vijayabahu (1055-1110) after he re-established Sinhala independence in 1070.<br/><br/> Like other Lankan coins from around the 11th Century no date is indicated. It is not certain whether the Kahavanu was introduced at Ruhuna, the region in the south of the island to which the Sinhala court had been obliged to move as a result of Rajaraja's conquests.
This anonymous gold coinage appears to have been initiated shortly before Rajaraja Chola invaded Lanka in 990 CE, and struck through the period when the Cholas dominated the island (1017-1070), and continued by closely similar coins struck for Vijayabahu (1055-1110) after he re-established Sinhala independence in 1070.<br/><br/> Like other Lankan coins from around the 11th Century no date is indicated. It is not certain whether the Kahavanu was introduced at Ruhuna, the region in the south of the island to which the Sinhala court had been obliged to move as a result of Rajaraja's conquests.
This anonymous gold coinage appears to have been initiated shortly before Rajaraja Chola invaded Lanka in 990 CE, and struck through the period when the Cholas dominated the island (1017-1070), and continued by closely similar coins struck for Vijayabahu (1055-1110) after he re-established Sinhala independence in 1070.<br/><br/> Like other Lankan coins from around the 11th Century no date is indicated. It is not certain whether the Kahavanu was introduced at Ruhuna, the region in the south of the island to which the Sinhala court had been obliged to move as a result of Rajaraja's conquests.
Suzhou, the city of canals and gardens, was called the ‘Venice of the East’ by Marco Polo. An ancient Chinese proverb states: ‘In Heaven there is Paradise; on Earth there is Suzhou’.<br/><br/>The city’s love affair with gardens dates back 2,500 years and continues still. At the time of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) there were 250 gardens, of which about a hundred survive, although only a few are open to the public.
Queen Lilavati, also known as Leelawathi, was the second woman in Sri Lankan history to rule as sovereign in her own right.<br/><br/> Lilavati rose to prominence as the wife of Parakramabahu the Great, the king of Polonnaruwa. Being of royal descent herself, she then ruled as sole monarch on three different occasions in the near-anarchy following Parakramabahu's death, with the backing of various generals. The primary source for her life is the Pali chronicle Culavamsa.<br/><br/> Polonnaruwa, the second most ancient of Sri Lanka's kingdoms, was first declared the capital city by King Vijayabahu I, who defeated the Chola invaders in 1070 CE to reunite the country under a national leader.
Queen Lilavati, also known as Leelawathi, was the second woman in Sri Lankan history to rule as sovereign in her own right.<br/><br/> Lilavati rose to prominence as the wife of Parakramabahu the Great, the king of Polonnaruwa. Being of royal descent herself, she then ruled as sole monarch on three different occasions in the near-anarchy following Parakramabahu's death, with the backing of various generals. The primary source for her life is the Pali chronicle Culavamsa.<br/><br/> Polonnaruwa, the second most ancient of Sri Lanka's kingdoms, was first declared the capital city by King Vijayabahu I, who defeated the Chola invaders in 1070 CE to reunite the country under a national leader.
Quanzhou was established in 718 during the Tang Dynasty (618–907). In those days, Guangzhou was China's greatest seaport, but this status would be surpassed later by Quanzhou. During the Song Dynasty (960–1279) and Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368), Quanzhou was one of the world's largest seaports, hosting a large community of foreign-born inhabitants from across the Eurasian world.<br/><br/> Due to its reputation, Quanzhou has been called the starting point of the Silk Road via the sea. From the Arabic name form of the city, Zayton, the word satin would be minted. In The Travels of Marco Polo, Quanzhou (called Zayton, T'swan-Chau or Chin-Cheu) was listed as the departure point for Marco Polo's expedition to escort the 17-year-old Mongol princess bride Kököchin to her new husband in the Persian Ilkhanate.
Quanzhou was established in 718 during the Tang Dynasty (618–907). In those days, Guangzhou was China's greatest seaport, but this status would be surpassed later by Quanzhou. During the Song Dynasty (960–1279) and Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368), Quanzhou was one of the world's largest seaports, hosting a large community of foreign-born inhabitants from across the Eurasian world.<br/><br/> Due to its reputation, Quanzhou has been called the starting point of the Silk Road via the sea. From the Arabic name form of the city, Zayton, the word satin would be minted. In The Travels of Marco Polo, Quanzhou (called Zayton, T'swan-Chau or Chin-Cheu) was listed as the departure point for Marco Polo's expedition to escort the 17-year-old Mongol princess bride Kököchin to her new husband in the Persian Ilkhanate.
The Nabataeans, also Nabateans (Arabic: الأنباط‎ al-ʾAnbāṭ), were ancient peoples of Jordan, whose oasis settlements in the time of Josephus (AD 37 – c. 100), gave the name of Nabatene to the borderland between Syria and Arabia, from the Euphrates to the Red Sea. Their loosely-controlled trading network, which centered on strings of oases that they controlled, where agriculture was intensively practiced in limited areas, and on the routes that linked them, had no securely defined boundaries in the surrounding desert.<br/><br/> Trajan conquered the Nabataean kingdom, annexing it to the Roman Empire, where their individual culture, easily identified by their characteristic finely-potted painted ceramics, became dispersed in the general Greco-Roman culture and was eventually lost.
A major battleground, Burma was devastated during World War II. By March 1942, within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942.<br/><br/> Wingate's British Chindits were formed into long-range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines. A similar American unit, Merrill's Marauders, followed the Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943. Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. However, the battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma.<br/><br/> Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese, some Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, also served in the British Burma Army. The Burma National Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944, but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945.
The Dutch East India Company (Dutch: Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, VOC) was a chartered company established in 1602, when the States-General of the Netherlands granted it a 21-year monopoly to carry out colonial activities in Asia. It was the first multinational corporation in the world and the first company to issue stock. It was also arguably the world's first megacorporation, possessing quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, imprison and execute convicts, negotiate treaties, coin money, and establish colonies.
The Kharoṣṭhī script was an ancient abugida used by Gandhara culture to write the Gāndhārī and Sanskrit languages. It was in use from the middle of the 3rd century BCE until it died out in its homeland around the 3rd century CE. It was also in use in Kushan, Sogdiana and along the Silk Road where there is some evidence it may have survived until the 7th century in the remote way stations of Khotan and Niya. Indo-Scythians is a term used to refer to Sakas (or Scythians), who migrated into Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, Gandhara, Kashmir, Punjab, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan, from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE.
Abdulhamid II (Ottoman Turkish: عبد الحميد ثانی `Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i sânî, Turkish: İkinci Abdülhamit) (22 September 1842 – 10 February 1918) was the 99th caliph of Islam and the 34th sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He was the last Sultan to exert effective control over the Ottoman Empire. He oversaw a period of decline in the power and extent of the Empire, ruling from 31 August 1876 until he was deposed on 27 April 1909. He was succeeded by Mehmed V. His deposition following the Young Turk Revolution was hailed by most Ottoman citizens, who welcomed the return to constitutional rule.<br/><br/>During his tenure, he was responsible for the modernization of the Ottoman Empire, and exerted maximum control over its affairs. Changes included: rationalization of the bureaucracy; the ambitious Hijaz Railway project; the creation of a modern system of personnel records (1896); establishment of an elaborate system for population registration and control over the press; systematization of officials salaries (1880); and the first modern law school (1898). Between the period 1871-1908, the Sublime Porte (Istanbul) thus reached a new degree of organizational elaboration and articulation.
This anonymous gold coinage appears to have been initiated shortly before Rajaraja Chola invaded Lanka in 990 CE, and struck through the period when the Cholas dominated the island (1017-1070), and continued by closely similar coins struck for Vijayabahu (1055-1110) after he re-established Sinhala independence in 1070.<br/><br/> Like other Lankan coins from around the 11th Century no date is indicated. It is not certain whether the Kahavanu was introduced at Ruhuna, the region in the south of the island to which the Sinhala court had been obliged to move as a result of Rajaraja's conquests.
Shadow play (Chinese: 皮影戏, pí yĭng xì) or shadow puppetry is an ancient form of storytelling and entertainment using opaque, often articulated figures in front of an illuminated backdrop to create the illusion of moving images. It is popular in various cultures. At present, more than 20 countries are known to have shadow show troupes.<br/><br/>Shadow puppetry originated during the Han Dynasty when one of the concubines of Emperor Wu of Han died from an illness. The emperor was devastated, and he summoned his court officers to bring his beloved back to life. The officers made a shape of the concubine using donkey leather. Her joints were animated using 11 separate pieces of the leather, and adorned with painted clothes. Using an oil lamp they made her shadow move, bringing her back to life. Shadow theatre became quite popular as early as the Song Dynasty when holidays were marked by the presentation of many shadow plays. During the Ming Dynasty there were 40 to 50 shadow show troupes in the city of Beijing alone. In the 13th century, the shadow show became a regular recreation in the barracks of the Mongolian troops. It was spread by the conquering Mongols to distant countries like Persia, Arabia, and Turkey. Later, it was introduced to other Southeastern Asian countries.<br/><br/>The earliest shadow theatre screens were made of mulberry paper. The storytellers generally used the art to tell events between various war kingdoms or stories of Buddhist sources. Today, puppets made of leather and moved on sticks are used to tell dramatic versions of traditional fairy tales and myths. In Gansu province, it is accompanied by Daoqing music, while in Jilin, accompanying Huanglong music forms some of the basis of modern opera.
At the end of the 18th century, the first paper money appeared in the Netherlands Indies. The notes were issued by the Dutch East India Company (VOC) that represented the Dutch interests in the East.<br/><br/> The Dutch East Indies, or Netherlands East Indies, (Dutch: Nederlands-Indië; Indonesian: Hindia-Belanda) was the Dutch colony that became modern Indonesia following World War II. It was formed from the nationalised colonies of the former Dutch East India Company that came under the administration of the Netherlands in 1800.<br/><br/> During the 19th century, Dutch possessions and its hegemony were expanded, reaching their greatest extent in the early 20th century, defining the borders of modern-day Indonesia. The colony was based on rigid racial and social categorisations with a Dutch elite living separate from their native subjects.
Rakhine State ( formerly Arakan) is a state of Myanmar. Situated on the western coast, it is bordered by Chin State in the north, Magway Region, Bago Region and Ayeyarwady Region in the east, the Bay of Bengal to the west, and the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh to the northwest.<br/><br/> The history of the region of Rakhine / Arakan is divided into the Dhanyawadi, Waithali, Laymro and Mrauk U periods. Mrauk U was conquered by the Konbaung dynasty of Burma in 1784-85, after which Rakhine became part of the Konbaung kingdom of Burma.<br/><br/> In 1824, the first Anglo-Burmese war erupted and in 1826, Rakhine (alongside Tanintharyi / Tenasserim) was ceded to the British as reparation by the Burmese to the British. Rakhine thus became part of the province of Burma of British India.<br/><br/> In 1948, Burma was given independence and Rakhine became part of the new federal republic.
A major battleground, Burma was devastated during World War II. By March 1942, within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942.<br/><br/> Wingate's British Chindits were formed into long-range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines. A similar American unit, Merrill's Marauders, followed the Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943. Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. However, the battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma.<br/><br/> Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese, some Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, also served in the British Burma Army. The Burma National Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944, but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945.
The East India Company (also the East India Trading Company, English East India Company, and then the British East India Company) was an early English joint-stock company that was formed initially for pursuing trade with the East Indies, but that ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent and China. The oldest among several similarly formed European East India Companies, the Company was granted an English Royal Charter, under the name Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies, by Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600. It ceased to trade in 1857.
Abdulhamid II (Ottoman Turkish: عبد الحميد ثانی `Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i sânî, Turkish: İkinci Abdülhamit) (22 September 1842 – 10 February 1918) was the 99th caliph of Islam and the 34th sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He was the last Sultan to exert effective control over the Ottoman Empire. He oversaw a period of decline in the power and extent of the Empire, ruling from 31 August 1876 until he was deposed on 27 April 1909. He was succeeded by Mehmed V. His deposition following the Young Turk Revolution was hailed by most Ottoman citizens, who welcomed the return to constitutional rule.<br/><br/>During his tenure, he was responsible for the modernization of the Ottoman Empire, and exerted maximum control over its affairs. Changes included: rationalization of the bureaucracy; the ambitious Hijaz Railway project; the creation of a modern system of personnel records (1896); establishment of an elaborate system for population registration and control over the press; systematization of officials salaries (1880); and the first modern law school (1898). Between the period 1871-1908, the Sublime Porte (Istanbul) thus reached a new degree of organizational elaboration and articulation.
Funan, Phù Nam in Vietnamese, Fúnán in pinyin, was the Chinese name for an ancient kingdom located around the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and its most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats representing the Wu Kingdom of Nanjing who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century A.D.; however, the name 'Funan' is not found in any texts of local origin, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their country.<br/><br/> What is known about Funan is from Chinese and Cham sources dating from the 3rd to 6th centuries and from archaeological excavations. From the side of archeology, we know that Funan must have been a powerful trading state, as evidenced by the discovery of Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods during excavations at the ancient trading depot of Oc Eo (Vietnamese: Óc Eo) in southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Oc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.
Funan, Phù Nam in Vietnamese, Fúnán in pinyin, was the Chinese name for an ancient kingdom located around the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and its most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats representing the Wu Kingdom of Nanjing who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century A.D.; however, the name 'Funan' is not found in any texts of local origin, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their country.<br/><br/> What is known about Funan is from Chinese and Cham sources dating from the 3rd to 6th centuries and from archaeological excavations. From the side of archeology, we know that Funan must have been a powerful trading state, as evidenced by the discovery of Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods during excavations at the ancient trading depot of Oc Eo (Vietnamese: Óc Eo) in southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Oc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.
Funan, Phù Nam in Vietnamese, Fúnán in pinyin, was the Chinese name for an ancient kingdom located around the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and its most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats representing the Wu Kingdom of Nanjing who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century A.D.; however, the name 'Funan' is not found in any texts of local origin, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their country.<br/><br/> What is known about Funan is from Chinese and Cham sources dating from the 3rd to 6th centuries and from archaeological excavations. From the side of archeology, we know that Funan must have been a powerful trading state, as evidenced by the discovery of Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods during excavations at the ancient trading depot of Oc Eo (Vietnamese: Óc Eo) in southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Oc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.
Funan, Phù Nam in Vietnamese, Fúnán in pinyin, was the Chinese name for an ancient kingdom located around the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and its most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats representing the Wu Kingdom of Nanjing who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century A.D.; however, the name 'Funan' is not found in any texts of local origin, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their country.<br/><br/> What is known about Funan is from Chinese and Cham sources dating from the 3rd to 6th centuries and from archaeological excavations. From the side of archeology, we know that Funan must have been a powerful trading state, as evidenced by the discovery of Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods during excavations at the ancient trading depot of Oc Eo (Vietnamese: Óc Eo) in southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Oc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.
Funan, Phù Nam in Vietnamese, Fúnán in pinyin, was the Chinese name for an ancient kingdom located around the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and its most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats representing the Wu Kingdom of Nanjing who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century A.D.; however, the name 'Funan' is not found in any texts of local origin, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their country.<br/><br/> What is known about Funan is from Chinese and Cham sources dating from the 3rd to 6th centuries and from archaeological excavations. From the side of archeology, we know that Funan must have been a powerful trading state, as evidenced by the discovery of Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods during excavations at the ancient trading depot of Oc Eo (Vietnamese: Óc Eo) in southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Oc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.
Funan, Phù Nam in Vietnamese, Fúnán in pinyin, was the Chinese name for an ancient kingdom located around the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and its most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats representing the Wu Kingdom of Nanjing who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century A.D.; however, the name 'Funan' is not found in any texts of local origin, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their country.<br/><br/> What is known about Funan is from Chinese and Cham sources dating from the 3rd to 6th centuries and from archaeological excavations. From the side of archeology, we know that Funan must have been a powerful trading state, as evidenced by the discovery of Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods during excavations at the ancient trading depot of Oc Eo (Vietnamese: Óc Eo) in southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Oc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.
Funan, Phù Nam in Vietnamese, Fúnán in pinyin, was the Chinese name for an ancient kingdom located around the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and its most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats representing the Wu Kingdom of Nanjing who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century A.D.; however, the name 'Funan' is not found in any texts of local origin, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their country.<br/><br/> What is known about Funan is from Chinese and Cham sources dating from the 3rd to 6th centuries and from archaeological excavations. From the side of archeology, we know that Funan must have been a powerful trading state, as evidenced by the discovery of Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods during excavations at the ancient trading depot of Oc Eo (Vietnamese: Óc Eo) in southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Oc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.
Funan, Phù Nam in Vietnamese, Fúnán in pinyin, was the Chinese name for an ancient kingdom located around the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and its most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats representing the Wu Kingdom of Nanjing who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century A.D.; however, the name 'Funan' is not found in any texts of local origin, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their country.<br/><br/> What is known about Funan is from Chinese and Cham sources dating from the 3rd to 6th centuries and from archaeological excavations. From the side of archeology, we know that Funan must have been a powerful trading state, as evidenced by the discovery of Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods during excavations at the ancient trading depot of Oc Eo (Vietnamese: Óc Eo) in southern Vietnam.<br/><br/> Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Oc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.
The Astana Graves are a series of underground tombs located 6km from the ancient city of Gaochang, and 42km from Turpan, in Xinjiang, China. The tombs were used by the inhabitants of Gaochang, both commoners and locals, for about 600 years from 200 CE – 800 CE.<br/><br/> The complex covers 10 square kilometers and contains over 1,000 tombs. Different plots for separate castes and families are marked by gravel dividers. Due to the arid environment many important artifacts have been well preserved at the tombs, including natural mummies.<br/><br/> A typical tomb is entered by a 10 meter sloping staircase. The tombs are not very large, usually only 2 meters high. Some tombs also have murals inside. The deceased were laid on a small raised platform in the back of the tomb, surrounded by possessions and even food. Their faces were covered by cloths, some of which have distinct Persian motifs. A small funeral brick was placed to next to each body, on which was written the person’s name and other biographical information. These bricks have been incredibly useful for historians to date the tombs’ finds.<br/><br/> There are also various Tang Dynasty figurines and silk paintings in the Astana Graves. A new pavilion has been built outside the old graveyard; the centerpiece is a large statue of Fuxi and Nüwa based on the silk banners found on the inner ceilings of the tombs.
The Jalayirids were a Mongol dynasty which ruled over Iraq and western Persia after the breakup of the Mongol Khanate of Persia (or Ilkhanate) in the 1330s.<br/><br/> The Jalayirid sultanate lasted about fifty years, until disrupted by Tamerlane's conquests and the revolts of the 'Black Sheep Turks' or Qara Qoyunlu Turkmen.<br/><br/> After Tamerlane's death in 1405, there was a brief attempt to re-establish the sultanate in southern Iraq and Khuzistan. The Jalayirids were finally eliminated by Kara Koyunlu in 1432.
The Shahi (Devanagari: शाही), also called Shahiya dynasties ruled one of the middle kingdoms of India which included portions of the Kabulistan and the old province of Gandhara (now in northern Pakistan), from the decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century to the early 9th century.<br/><br/> The kingdom was known as 'Kabul Shahi' (Kabul-shāhān or Ratbél-shāhān in Persian کابلشاهان یا رتبیل شاهان) between 565 and 879 CE when they had Kapisa and Kabul as their capitals, and later as Hindu Shahi.<br/><br/> The Shahis of Kabul / Gandhara are generally divided into the two eras of the so-called Buddhist-Shahis and the so-called Hindu-Shahis, with the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around 870 CE.
In 1220 Genghis Khan sacked Balkh, butchered its inhabitants and levelled all the buildings capable of defense — treatment to which it was again subjected in the 14th century by Timur. Notwithstanding this, however, Marco Polo could still describe it as &quot;a noble city and a great seat of learning. In the 16th century the Uzbeks entered Balkh. The Moghul Shah Jahan fruitlessly fought them there for several years in the 1640s. Balkh was the government seat of Aurangzeb in his youth. In 1736 it was conquered by Nadir Shah. Under the Durani monarchy it fell into the hands of the Afghans; it was conquered by Shah Murad of Kunduz in 1820, and for some time was subject to the Emirate of Bukhara. In 1850, Dost Mohammad Khan, the Emir of Afghanistan, captured Balkh, and from that time it remained under Afghan rule. In 1866, Balkh lost its administrative status to the neighboring city of Mazar-e Sharif.
Mahmud Ghazan (1271–1304) was the seventh ruler of the Mongol Empire's Ilkhanate division in modern-day Iran from 1295 to 1304. He was the son of Arghun and Quthluq Khatun, continuing a line of rulers who were direct descendants of Genghis Khan. Considered the most prominent of the Ilkhans, he is best known for making a political conversion to Islam in 1295 when he took the throne, marking a turning point for the dominant religion of Mongols in Central Asia. His principal wife was Kokochin (Kokechin), a Mongol princess sent by Kublai Khan, and escorted from the Mongol capital to the Ilkhanate by Marco Polo.
From the 16th century, local currencies started to be made in Japan, with the minting of local coins, sometimes in gold. The Takeda clan of Kōshū minted gold coins which were later adopted by the Tokugawa Shogunate.<br/><br/> Hideyoshi unified Japan, and thus centralized most of the minting of large denomination silver and gold coins, effectively putting in place the basis of a unified currency system. Hideyoshi developed the large Ōban plate, also called the Tenshō Ōban, in 1588, a predecessor to Tokugawa gold coinage.<br/><br/> A common practice in that period was also to melt gold into copper molds for convenience, derived from the sycee manufacturing method. These were called Bundōkin, of which there were two types, the small Kobundō and the large Ōbundō. A Kobundō would represent about 373g in gold.
From the 16th century, local currencies started to be made in Japan, with the minting of local coins, sometimes in gold. The Takeda clan of Kōshū minted gold coins which were later adopted by the Tokugawa Shogunate.<br/><br/> Hideyoshi unified Japan, and thus centralized most of the minting of large denomination silver and gold coins, effectively putting in place the basis of a unified currency system. Hideyoshi developed the large Ōban plate, also called the Tenshō Ōban, in 1588, a predecessor to Tokugawa gold coinage.<br/><br/> A common practice in that period was also to melt gold into copper molds for convenience, derived from the sycee manufacturing method. These were called Bundōkin, of which there were two types, the small Kobundō and the large Ōbundō. A Kobundō would represent about 373g in gold.
Mahmud Ghazan (1271–1304) was the seventh ruler of the Mongol Empire's Ilkhanate division in modern-day Iran from 1295 to 1304. He was the son of Arghun and Quthluq Khatun, continuing a line of rulers who were direct descendants of Genghis Khan. Considered the most prominent of the Ilkhans, he is best known for making a political conversion to Islam in 1295 when he took the throne, marking a turning point for the dominant religion of Mongols in Central Asia. His principal wife was Kokochin (Kokechin), a Mongol princess sent by Kublai Khan, and escorted from the Mongol capital to the Ilkhanate by Marco Polo.
The economy of the Anuradhapura Kingdom was based mainly on agriculture.<br/><br/> Currency was often used for settling judicial fines, taxes and payments for goods or services. However, remuneration for services to the king, officials and temples were often made in the form of land revenue.<br/><br/> The oldest coins found at Anuradhapura date up to 200 BCE. These earliest coins were punch marked rectangular pieces of silver known as kahavanu. These eventually became circular in shape, which were in turn followed by die struck coins. Uncoined metals, particularly gold and silver, were used for trading as well. Patterns of elephants, horses, swastika and Dharmacakra were commonly imprinted on the coins of this period.
Balash (in the Greek authors, Balas; the later form of the name Vologases), the eighteenth Sassanid King of Persia (484–488), was the brother and successor of Peroz I of Persia (457–484).<br/><br/> Balash was made King of Persia following the death of his brother Peroz who had died in a battle against the Hephthalites (White Huns) who invaded Persia from the east. Immediately after ascending the throne, he sought peace with the Hephthalites which cost the Persians a heavy tribute.
Hormizd I was the third Sassanid King of Persia from 270/72 to 273.<br/><br/> He was the son of Shapur I (240–270/72), under whom he was governor of Khorasan, and appears in his wars against Rome (Historia Augusta, Trig. Tyr. 2, where Nöldeke has corrected the name Odomastes into Oromastes, i.e. Hormizd).<br/><br/> In the Persian tradition of the history of Ardashir I (226–240 [died 241/42]), preserved in a Pahlavi text (Nöldeke, Geschichte des Artachsir I. Papakan), Hormizd I is made the son of a daughter of Mithrak, a Persian dynast, whose family Ardashir had extirpated because the Magi had predicted that the restorer of the empire of Persia would come from his blood.<br/><br/> According to legend, this daughter alone was saved by a peasant; Shapur I saw her and made her his wife, and afterwards her son Hormizd I was recognized and acknowledged by Ardashir. In this legend, which has also been partially preserved in Tabari, the great conquests of Shapur I are transferred to Hormizd I. In reality he reigned only one year and ten days.
Hulagu Khan was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of Southwest Asia. Son of Tolui and the Kerait princess Sorghaghtani Beki, he was a grandson of Genghis Khan, and the brother of Arik Boke, Mongke Khan and Kublai Khan. Hulagu's army greatly expanded the southwestern portion of the Mongol Empire, founding the Ilkhanate of Persia, a precursor to the eventual Safavid dynasty, and then the modern state of Iran. Under Hulagu's leadership, the Mongols destroyed the greatest center of Islamic power, Baghdad, and also weakened Damascus, causing a shift of Islamic influence to the Mamluks in Cairo. It was also in Hulagu's reign that historians switched from writing in Arabic to writing in Persian.