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Jane Seymour (c. 1508 – 24 October 1537) was Queen of England from 1536 to 1537 as the third wife of King Henry VIII. She succeeded Anne Boleyn as queen consort following the latter's execution for high treason, incest and adultery in May 1536. She died of postnatal complications less than two weeks after the birth of her only child, a son who reigned as King Edward VI.<br/><br/> She was the only one of Henry's wives to receive a queen's funeral, and his only consort to be buried beside him in St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. She was the only wife of Henry VIII whose son survived infancy.
Mary I (18 February 1516 – 17 November 1558) was Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 until her death. Her executions of Protestants caused her opponents to give her the sobriquet 'Bloody Mary'.
Catherine of Aragon (Castilian: Catalina; also spelled Katherine of Aragon, 16 December 1485 – 7 January 1536) was the Queen of England from June 1509 until May 1533 as the first wife of King Henry VIII; she was previously Princess of Wales as the wife of Prince Arthur.<br/><br/> The daughter of Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, Catherine was three years old when she was betrothed to Prince Arthur, heir apparent to the English throne. They married in 1501, and Arthur died five months later. In 1507, she held the position of ambassador for the Spanish Court in England, becoming the first female ambassador in European history. Catherine subsequently married Arthur's younger brother, the recently succeeded Henry VIII, in 1509.<br/><br/> She died at Kimbolton Castle on 7 January 1536.
Mary I (18 February 1516 – 17 November 1558) was Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 until her death. Her executions of Protestants caused her opponents to give her the sobriquet 'Bloody Mary'.
Catherine Howard (c.1521 – 13 February 1542) was Queen of England from 1540 until 1541, as the fifth wife of Henry VIII. Catherine married Henry VIII on 28 July 1540, at Oatlands Palace, in Surrey, almost immediately after the annulment of his marriage to Anne of Cleves was arranged.<br/><br/> Catherine was beheaded after less than two years of marriage to Henry on the grounds of treason by committing adultery while married to the King.
Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex, KG (c. 1485 – 28 July 1540), was an English lawyer and statesman who served as chief minister to King Henry VIII of England from 1532 to 1540.<br/><br/> Cromwell was one of the strongest and most powerful advocates of the English Reformation. He helped to engineer an annulment of the king's marriage to Queen Catherine of Aragon to allow Henry to marry his mistress Anne Boleyn. After failing in 1534 to obtain the Pope's approval of the request for annulment, Parliament endorsed the King's claim to be head of the breakaway Church of England, thus giving Henry the authority to annul his own marriage. Cromwell subsequently plotted an evangelical, reformist course for the embryonic Church of England from the unique posts of vicegerent in spirituals and vicar-general.<br/><br/> During his rise to power, Cromwell made many enemies, including his former ally Anne Boleyn; he played a prominent role in her downfall. He later fell from power after arranging the King's marriage to a German princess, Anne of Cleves. Cromwell hoped that the marriage would breathe fresh life into the Reformation in England, but because Henry found his new bride unattractive, it turned into a disaster for Cromwell and ended in an annulment six months later. Cromwell was arraigned under a bill of attainder and executed for treason and heresy on Tower Hill on 28 July 1540. The King later expressed regret at the loss of his chief minister.
Henry VII (28 January 1457 – 21 April 1509) was King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizing the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death on 21 April 1509, as the first monarch of the House of Tudor.<br/><br/> Henry won the throne when his forces defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field. He was the last king of England to win his throne on the field of battle. Henry cemented his claim by marrying Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV and niece of Richard III. Henry was successful in restoring the power and stability of the English monarchy after the political upheavals of the civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses. He founded the Tudor dynasty and, after a reign of nearly 24 years, was peacefully succeeded by his son, Henry VIII.
Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud ben Mohammed Anoun, Moorish Ambassador to Queen Elizabeth I — This image is a reproduction of an Elizabethan painting of the Moorish Ambassador who visited Queen Elizabeth I of England from Barbary in 1600 to propose an alliance against Spain.
Anne of Cleves (German: Anna; 22 September 1515 – 16 July 1557) was Queen of England from 6 January 1540 to 9 July 1540 as the fourth wife of King Henry VIII. The marriage was declared never consummated and, as a result, she was not crowned queen consort.<br/><br/> Following the annulment of their marriage, Anne was given a generous settlement by the King, and thereafter referred to as the King's Beloved Sister. She lived to see the coronation of Queen Mary I, outliving the rest of Henry's wives.
Henry VII (28 January 1457 – 21 April 1509) was King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizing the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death on 21 April 1509, as the first monarch of the House of Tudor.<br/><br/> Henry won the throne when his forces defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field. He was the last king of England to win his throne on the field of battle. Henry cemented his claim by marrying Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV and niece of Richard III. Henry was successful in restoring the power and stability of the English monarchy after the political upheavals of the civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses. He founded the Tudor dynasty and, after a reign of nearly 24 years, was peacefully succeeded by his son, Henry VIII.
Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. He was Lord, and later assumed the Kingship, of Ireland, and continued the nominal claim by English monarchs to the Kingdom of France.<br/><br/> Henry was the second monarch of the Tudor dynasty, succeeding his father, Henry VII.
Catherine Parr (alternatively spelled Katherine or Kateryn) (1512 – 5 September 1548) was Queen of England and of Ireland (1543–47) as the last of the six wives of King Henry VIII. She married him on 12 July 1543, and outlived him by one year. She was also the most-married English queen, with four husbands.<br/><br/> Catherine enjoyed a close relationship with Henry's three children and was personally involved in the education of Elizabeth and Edward, both of whom became English monarchs. She was influential in Henry's passing of the Third Succession Act in 1543 that restored both his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, to the line of succession to the throne.
Catherine Howard (c.1521 – 13 February 1542) was Queen of England from 1540 until 1541, as the fifth wife of Henry VIII. Catherine married Henry VIII on 28 July 1540, at Oatlands Palace, in Surrey, almost immediately after the annulment of his marriage to Anne of Cleves was arranged.<br/><br/> Catherine was beheaded after less than two years of marriage to Henry on the grounds of treason by committing adultery while married to the King.
Oriental carpets more than two centuries old have rarely survived and are rarely represented in Islamic Art since Sunni Islam (and to a lesser extent Shia) eschews representational art in favour of precisely the repetetive geometric symbols and arabesques found, for example, in oriental carpets.<br/><br/> This means that most examples of 17th century and earlier oriental carpets, mainly produced in Muslim lands, are only to be found in paintings from Christian lands where rich oriental carpets were associated with wealth, power and taste.<br/><br/> Such carpets featured as an important decorative feature in paintings from the 14th century onwards, leading to the dichotomy that there are more depictions of oriental carpets produced before the 17th century in European paintings than there are actual oriental carpets surviving from the same period.<br/><br/> Because of this European paintings have proved an invaluable source of reference for the study of the history of carpetmaking and carpets.
Oriental carpets more than two centuries old have rarely survived and are rarely represented in Islamic Art since Sunni Islam (and to a lesser extent Shia) eschews representational art in favour of precisely the repetetive geometric symbols and arabesques found, for example, in oriental carpets.<br/><br/> This means that most examples of 17th century and earlier oriental carpets, mainly produced in Muslim lands, are only to be found in paintings from Christian lands where rich oriental carpets were associated with wealth, power and taste.<br/><br/> Such carpets featured as an important decorative feature in paintings from the 14th century onwards, leading to the dichotomy that there are more depictions of oriental carpets produced before the 17th century in European paintings than there are actual oriental carpets surviving from the same period.<br/><br/> Because of this European paintings have proved an invaluable source of reference for the study of the history of carpetmaking and carpets.
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen regnant of England and Queen regnant of Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Elizabeth I's foreign policy with regard to Asia, Africa and Latin America demonstrated a new understanding of the role of England as a maritime, Protestant power in an increasingly global economy. Her reign saw major innovations in exploration, colonization and the use of England's growing maritime power.
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen regnant of England and Queen regnant of Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Elizabeth I's foreign policy with regard to Asia, Africa and Latin America demonstrated a new understanding of the role of England as a maritime, Protestant power in an increasingly global economy. Her reign saw major innovations in exploration, colonization and the use of England's growing maritime power.
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen regnant of England and Queen regnant of Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Elizabeth I's foreign policy with regard to Asia, Africa and Latin America demonstrated a new understanding of the role of England as a maritime, Protestant power in an increasingly global economy. Her reign saw major innovations in exploration, colonization and the use of England's growing maritime power.
Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud ben Mohammed Anoun, Moorish Ambassador to Queen Elizabeth I — This image is a reproduction of an Elizabethan painting of the Moorish Ambassador who visited Queen Elizabeth I of England from Barbary in 1600 to propose an alliance against Spain.
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen regnant of England and Queen regnant of Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Elizabeth I's foreign policy with regard to Asia, Africa and Latin America demonstrated a new understanding of the role of England as a maritime, Protestant power in an increasingly global economy. Her reign saw major innovations in exploration, colonization and the use of England's growing maritime power.
Anne was crowned Queen of England on 1 June 1533. On 7 September, she gave birth to the future Elizabeth I of England. To Henry's displeasure, however, she failed to produce a male heir. Henry was not totally discouraged, for he said that he loved Elizabeth and that a son would surely follow. Three miscarriages followed, however, and by March 1536, Henry was courting Jane Seymour. In April–May 1536, Henry had Anne investigated for high treason. On 2 May, she was arrested and sent to the Tower of London, where she was tried before a jury of peers and found guilty on 15 May. She was beheaded four days later on Tower Green. Modern historians view the charges against her, which included adultery and incest, as unconvincing. Following the coronation of her daughter, Elizabeth I, as queen, Anne was venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation.
Sir Francis Walsingham (c. 1532 – 6 April 1590) was Principal Secretary to Elizabeth I of England from 1573 till 1590, and is popularly remembered as her 'spymaster'. Walsingham is frequently cited as one of the earliest practitioners of modern intelligence methods both for espionage and for domestic security. Walsingham was one of the small coterie who directed the Elizabethan state.Overall, his foreign policy demonstrated a new understanding of the role of England as a maritime, Protestant power in an increasingly global economy. He was an innovator in exploration, colonization and the use of England's potential maritime power.
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen regnant of England and Queen regnant of Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Elizabeth I's foreign policy with regard to Asia, Africa and Latin America demonstrated a new understanding of the role of England as a maritime, Protestant power in an increasingly global economy. Her reign saw major innovations in exploration, colonization and the use of England's growing maritime power.
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen regnant of England and Queen regnant of Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Elizabeth I's foreign policy with regard to Asia, Africa and Latin America demonstrated a new understanding of the role of England as a maritime, Protestant power in an increasingly global economy. Her reign saw major innovations in exploration, colonization and the use of England's growing maritime power.
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen regnant of England and Queen regnant of Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Elizabeth I's foreign policy with regard to Asia, Africa and Latin America demonstrated a new understanding of the role of England as a maritime, Protestant power in an increasingly global economy. Her reign saw major innovations in exploration, colonization and the use of England's growing maritime power.
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen regnant of England and Queen regnant of Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Elizabeth I's foreign policy with regard to Asia, Africa and Latin America demonstrated a new understanding of the role of England as a maritime, Protestant power in an increasingly global economy. Her reign saw major innovations in exploration, colonization and the use of England's growing maritime power.
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen regnant of England and Queen regnant of Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Elizabeth I's foreign policy with regard to Asia, Africa and Latin America demonstrated a new understanding of the role of England as a maritime, Protestant power in an increasingly global economy. Her reign saw major innovations in exploration, colonization and the use of England's growing maritime power.
Vice Admiral Sir Francis Drake (1540 –96) was an English sea captain, privateer, navigator, slaver, a renowned pirate, and a politician of the Elizabethan era. Elizabeth I of England awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581. He was second-in-command of the English fleet against the Spanish Armada in 1588, subordinate only to Charles Howard and the Queen herself. He died of dysentery in January 1596 after unsuccessfully attacking San Juan, Puerto Rico.<br/><br/> His exploits were legendary, making him a hero to the English but a pirate to the Spaniards. King Philip II was claimed to have offered a reward of 20,000 ducats, about US $6.5 million by modern standards, for his life.<br/><br/> He led the first English circumnavigation of the world, from 1577 to 1580, during which he visited the Spice Islands in the East Indies.
John Eldred sailed with Newberry and other merchants in 1583 on a royal decreed voyage to the Middle East to initiate trade in spices. Eldred remained in Basra while others continued to Persia and India. Six months later, Eldred left Basra with 70 barges laden with spices, mainly nutmeg and cinnamon. After 44 days they arrived in Baghdad where they joined a caravan of 4,000 camels that took 40 days to transport the merchandise to Aleppo in Syria. He remained in Aleppo for three years and when he left he was a wealthy man. He retired to the country in Suffolk buying a large manor which he named ‘Nutmeg Hall’. When the East India Company was established in 1600, Eldred became a major sponsor and financier.
After A Dutch spy, Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, copied Portuguese nautical maps while working as secretary for the Portuguese Archbishop of Goa in the 1580s, his published maps and books enabled the maritime passage to the elusive East Indies to be opened to the English and the Dutch. This allowed the British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company to break the 16th century monopoly enjoyed by the Portuguese on trade with the East Indies (Indonesia) and the Spice Islands (Moluccas), though not without a great deal of bloodshed. The Portuguese East India Company lost its stranglehold on East Indies’ trade and commerce, and was liquidated in 1633.
The East India Company, which became the British East India Company after the 1707 Treaty of Union, was an early English joint-stock company that was formed initially for pursuing trade with the East Indies, but that ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent and China. The Company was granted an English Royal Charter by Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600. After a rival English company challenged its monopoly in the late 17th century, the two companies were merged in 1708 to form the Honourable East India Company (HEIC), colloquially referred to as John Company.<br/><br/> The East India Company traded mainly in cotton, silk, indigo dye, saltpetre, tea and opium. The Company also came to rule large areas of India, exercising military power and assuming administrative functions, to the exclusion, gradually, of its commercial pursuits; it effectively functioned as a megacorporation. Company rule in India, which effectively began in 1757 after the Battle of Plassey, lasted until 1858, when, following the events of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British Crown assumed direct administration of India in the new British Raj. The Company itself was finally dissolved on 1 January 1874, as a result of the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act.