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Hunayn ibn Ishaq ( Latin: Iohannitius) (809 – 873) was a famous and influential scholar, physician, and scientist of Nestorian Arab Christian descent. He and his students transmitted their Syriac and Arabic translations of many classical Greek texts throughout the Islamic world, during the apex of the Islamic Abbasid Caliphate.<br/><br/> Hunayn ibn Ishaq was the most productive translator of Greek medical and scientific treatises in his day. He studied Greek and became known among the Arabs as the 'Sheikh of the translators'. He mastered four languages: Arabic, Syriac, Greek and Persian.
Nestorius developed his Christological views as an attempt to rationally explain and understand the incarnation of the divine Logos, the Second Person of the Holy Trinity as the man Jesus Christ. He had studied at the School of Antioch where his mentor had been Theodore of Mopsuestia; Theodore and other Antioch theologians had long taught a literalist interpretation of the Bible and stressed the distinctiveness of the human and divine natures of Jesus. Nestorius took his Antiochene leanings with him when he was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople by Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II in 428.<br/><br/> Nestorius' teachings became the root of controversy when he publicly challenged the long-used title Theotokos (Mother of God) for the Virgin Mary. He suggested that the title denied Christ's full humanity, arguing instead that Jesus had two loosely joined natures, the divine Logos and the human Jesus. As such he proposed Christotokos (Mother of Christ) as a more suitable title for Mary.<br/><br/> Nestorius' opponents found his teaching too close to the heresy of adoptionism – the idea that Christ had been born a man who had later been 'adopted' as God's son. Nestorius was especially criticized by Cyril, Pope (Patriarch) of Alexandria, who argued that Nestorius' teachings undermined the unity of Christ's divine and human natures at the Incarnation. Nestorius himself always insisted that his views were orthodox, though they were deemed heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431, leading to the Nestorian Schism, when churches supportive of Nestorius broke away from the rest of the Christian Church.
Nestorianism is a Christological doctrine advanced by Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 428–431. Nestorius and his teachings were eventually condemned as heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451, leading to the Nestorian Schism in which churches supporting Nestorius broke with the rest of the Christian Church.<br/><br/> Afterward many of Nestorius' supporters relocated to Sassanid Persia, where they affiliated with the local Christian community, known as the Church of the East. Subsequently the Church of the East became increasingly Nestorian in doctrine, leading it to be known alternately as the Nestorian Church.
Justin Perkins (1805-1869) was born on a farm in Massachusetts, and educated at Amherst and the Andover Theological Seminary. From 1833 until shortly before his death in 1869, he served as missionary to the Nestorian Christians of Qajar Iran (1794-1925) under the auspices of the American Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions. He was the first American missionary in Qajar Iran, as well as an eminent scholar of Syriac.<br/><br/> He developed an alphabet for the writing of modern Syriac, which was the Nestorians' vernacular, and established a press at Urmia (spelled Oroomiah by Perkins) in western Azerbaijan to print his translations of the New Testament (1846) and the Old Testament (1852) in both liturgical and modern Syriac.<br/><br/> Urmia, sometimes spelled, Orumieh, during the majority of the Pahlavi Dynasty (1925–1979) called Rezaiyeh), is a city in Northwestern Iran and the capital of West Azerbaijan Province. The city lies on an altitude of 1,330 m above sea level on the Shahar Chay river (City River). Urmia is the 10th most populated city in Iran with a population of about 600,000. The population is predominantly Azerbaijani with significant Kurdish, Assyrian and Armenian minorities.
Nestorianism is a Christological doctrine advanced by Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 428–431. Nestorius and his teachings were eventually condemned as heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451, leading to the Nestorian Schism in which churches supporting Nestorius broke with the rest of the Christian Church.<br/><br/> Afterward many of Nestorius' supporters relocated to Sassanid Persia, where they affiliated with the local Christian community, known as the Church of the East. Subsequently the Church of the East became increasingly Nestorian in doctrine, leading it to be known alternately as the Nestorian Church.
Justin Perkins (1805-1869) was born on a farm in Massachusetts, and educated at Amherst and the Andover Theological Seminary. From 1833 until shortly before his death in 1869, he served as missionary to the Nestorian Christians of Qajar Iran (1794-1925) under the auspices of the American Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions. He was the first American missionary in Qajar Iran, as well as an eminent scholar of Syriac.<br/><br/> He developed an alphabet for the writing of modern Syriac, which was the Nestorians' vernacular, and established a press at Urmia (spelled Oroomiah by Perkins) in western Azerbaijan to print his translations of the New Testament (1846) and the Old Testament (1852) in both liturgical and modern Syriac.<br/><br/> Urmia, sometimes spelled, Orumieh, during the majority of the Pahlavi Dynasty (1925–1979) called Rezaiyeh), is a city in Northwestern Iran and the capital of West Azerbaijan Province. The city lies on an altitude of 1,330 m above sea level on the Shahar Chay river (City River). Urmia is the 10th most populated city in Iran with a population of about 600,000. The population is predominantly Azerbaijani with significant Kurdish, Assyrian and Armenian minorities.
Justin Perkins (1805-1869) was born on a farm in Massachusetts, and educated at Amherst and the Andover Theological Seminary. From 1833 until shortly before his death in 1869, he served as missionary to the Nestorian Christians of Qajar Iran (1794-1925) under the auspices of the American Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions. He was the first American missionary in Qajar Iran, as well as an eminent scholar of Syriac.<br/><br/> He developed an alphabet for the writing of modern Syriac, which was the Nestorians' vernacular, and established a press at Urmia (spelled Oroomiah by Perkins) in western Azerbaijan to print his translations of the New Testament (1846) and the Old Testament (1852) in both liturgical and modern Syriac.<br/><br/> Urmia, sometimes spelled, Orumieh, during the majority of the Pahlavi Dynasty (1925–1979) called Rezaiyeh), is a city in Northwestern Iran and the capital of West Azerbaijan Province. The city lies on an altitude of 1,330 m above sea level on the Shahar Chay river (City River). Urmia is the 10th most populated city in Iran with a population of about 600,000. The population is predominantly Azerbaijani with significant Kurdish, Assyrian and Armenian minorities.
Nestorianism is a Christological doctrine advanced by Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 428–431. Nestorius and his teachings were eventually condemned as heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451, leading to the Nestorian Schism in which churches supporting Nestorius broke with the rest of the Christian Church.<br/><br/> Afterward many of Nestorius' supporters relocated to Sassanid Persia, where they affiliated with the local Christian community, known as the Church of the East. Subsequently the Church of the East became increasingly Nestorian in doctrine, leading it to be known alternately as the Nestorian Church.
Nestorianism is a Christological doctrine advanced by Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 428–431. Nestorius and his teachings were eventually condemned as heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451, leading to the Nestorian Schism in which churches supporting Nestorius broke with the rest of the Christian Church.<br/><br/> Afterward many of Nestorius' supporters relocated to Sassanid Persia, where they affiliated with the local Christian community, known as the Church of the East. Subsequently the Church of the East became increasingly Nestorian in doctrine, leading it to be known alternately as the Nestorian Church.
Nestorianism is a Christological doctrine advanced by Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 428–431. Nestorius and his teachings were eventually condemned as heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451, leading to the Nestorian Schism in which churches supporting Nestorius broke with the rest of the Christian Church.<br/><br/> Afterward many of Nestorius' supporters relocated to Sassanid Persia, where they affiliated with the local Christian community, known as the Church of the East. Subsequently the Church of the East became increasingly Nestorian in doctrine, leading it to be known alternately as the Nestorian Church.
Nestorianism is a Christological doctrine advanced by Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 428–431. Nestorius and his teachings were eventually condemned as heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451, leading to the Nestorian Schism in which churches supporting Nestorius broke with the rest of the Christian Church.<br/><br/> Afterward many of Nestorius' supporters relocated to Sassanid Persia, where they affiliated with the local Christian community, known as the Church of the East. Subsequently the Church of the East became increasingly Nestorian in doctrine, leading it to be known alternately as the Nestorian Church.
Nestorianism is a Christological doctrine advanced by Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 428–431. Nestorius and his teachings were eventually condemned as heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451, leading to the Nestorian Schism in which churches supporting Nestorius broke with the rest of the Christian Church.<br/><br/> Afterward many of Nestorius' supporters relocated to Sassanid Persia, where they affiliated with the local Christian community, known as the Church of the East. Subsequently the Church of the East became increasingly Nestorian in doctrine, leading it to be known alternately as the Nestorian Church.
Nestorianism is a Christological doctrine advanced by Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 428–431. Nestorius and his teachings were eventually condemned as heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451, leading to the Nestorian Schism in which churches supporting Nestorius broke with the rest of the Christian Church.<br/><br/> Afterward many of Nestorius' supporters relocated to Sassanid Persia, where they affiliated with the local Christian community, known as the Church of the East. Subsequently the Church of the East became increasingly Nestorian in doctrine, leading it to be known alternately as the Nestorian Church.
Quanzhou was established in 718 during the Tang Dynasty (618–907). In those days, Guangzhou was China's greatest seaport, but this status would be surpassed later by Quanzhou. During the Song Dynasty (960–1279) and Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368), Quanzhou was one of the world's largest seaports, hosting a large community of foreign-born inhabitants from across the Eurasian world.<br/><br/> Due to its reputation, Quanzhou has been called the starting point of the Silk Road via the sea. From the Arabic name form of the city, Zayton, the word satin would be minted. In The Travels of Marco Polo, Quanzhou (called Zayton, T'swan-Chau or Chin-Cheu) was listed as the departure point for Marco Polo's expedition to escort the 17-year-old Mongol princess bride Kököchin to her new husband in the Persian Ilkhanate.
Nestorius developed his Christological views as an attempt to rationally explain and understand the incarnation of the divine Logos, the Second Person of the Holy Trinity as the man Jesus Christ. He had studied at the School of Antioch where his mentor had been Theodore of Mopsuestia; Theodore and other Antioch theologians had long taught a literalist interpretation of the Bible and stressed the distinctiveness of the human and divine natures of Jesus. Nestorius took his Antiochene leanings with him when he was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople by Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II in 428.<br/><br/> Nestorius' teachings became the root of controversy when he publicly challenged the long-used title Theotokos (Mother of God) for the Virgin Mary. He suggested that the title denied Christ's full humanity, arguing instead that Jesus had two loosely joined natures, the divine Logos and the human Jesus. As such he proposed Christotokos (Mother of Christ) as a more suitable title for Mary.<br/><br/> Nestorius' opponents found his teaching too close to the heresy of adoptionism – the idea that Christ had been born a man who had later been "adopted" as God's son. Nestorius was especially criticized by Cyril, Pope (Patriarch) of Alexandria, who argued that Nestorius' teachings undermined the unity of Christ's divine and human natures at the Incarnation. Nestorius himself always insisted that his views were orthodox, though they were deemed heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431, leading to the Nestorian Schism, when churches supportive of Nestorius broke away from the rest of the Christian Church.
Nestorius developed his Christological views as an attempt to rationally explain and understand the incarnation of the divine Logos, the Second Person of the Holy Trinity as the man Jesus Christ. He had studied at the School of Antioch where his mentor had been Theodore of Mopsuestia; Theodore and other Antioch theologians had long taught a literalist interpretation of the Bible and stressed the distinctiveness of the human and divine natures of Jesus. Nestorius took his Antiochene leanings with him when he was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople by Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II in 428.<br/><br/> Nestorius' teachings became the root of controversy when he publicly challenged the long-used title Theotokos (Mother of God) for the Virgin Mary. He suggested that the title denied Christ's full humanity, arguing instead that Jesus had two loosely joined natures, the divine Logos and the human Jesus. As such he proposed Christotokos (Mother of Christ) as a more suitable title for Mary.<br/><br/> Nestorius' opponents found his teaching too close to the heresy of adoptionism – the idea that Christ had been born a man who had later been "adopted" as God's son. Nestorius was especially criticized by Cyril, Pope (Patriarch) of Alexandria, who argued that Nestorius' teachings undermined the unity of Christ's divine and human natures at the Incarnation. Nestorius himself always insisted that his views were orthodox, though they were deemed heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431, leading to the Nestorian Schism, when churches supportive of Nestorius broke away from the rest of the Christian Church.
A Nestorian stele from one of the earliest natural history books about China, by an anonymous Jesuit Missionary author.
Nestorius developed his Christological views as an attempt to rationally explain and understand the incarnation of the divine Logos, the Second Person of the Holy Trinity as the man Jesus Christ. He had studied at the School of Antioch where his mentor had been Theodore of Mopsuestia; Theodore and other Antioch theologians had long taught a literalist interpretation of the Bible and stressed the distinctiveness of the human and divine natures of Jesus. Nestorius took his Antiochene leanings with him when he was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople by Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II in 428.<br/><br/> Nestorius' teachings became the root of controversy when he publicly challenged the long-used title Theotokos (Mother of God) for the Virgin Mary. He suggested that the title denied Christ's full humanity, arguing instead that Jesus had two loosely joined natures, the divine Logos and the human Jesus. As such he proposed Christotokos (Mother of Christ) as a more suitable title for Mary.<br/><br/> Nestorius' opponents found his teaching too close to the heresy of adoptionism – the idea that Christ had been born a man who had later been "adopted" as God's son. Nestorius was especially criticized by Cyril, Pope (Patriarch) of Alexandria, who argued that Nestorius' teachings undermined the unity of Christ's divine and human natures at the Incarnation. Nestorius himself always insisted that his views were orthodox, though they were deemed heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431, leading to the Nestorian Schism, when churches supportive of Nestorius broke away from the rest of the Christian Church.
Nestorius developed his Christological views as an attempt to rationally explain and understand the incarnation of the divine Logos, the Second Person of the Holy Trinity as the man Jesus Christ. He had studied at the School of Antioch where his mentor had been Theodore of Mopsuestia; Theodore and other Antioch theologians had long taught a literalist interpretation of the Bible and stressed the distinctiveness of the human and divine natures of Jesus. Nestorius took his Antiochene leanings with him when he was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople by Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II in 428.<br/><br/> Nestorius' teachings became the root of controversy when he publicly challenged the long-used title Theotokos (Mother of God) for the Virgin Mary. He suggested that the title denied Christ's full humanity, arguing instead that Jesus had two loosely joined natures, the divine Logos and the human Jesus. As such he proposed Christotokos (Mother of Christ) as a more suitable title for Mary.<br/><br/> Nestorius' opponents found his teaching too close to the heresy of adoptionism – the idea that Christ had been born a man who had later been "adopted" as God's son. Nestorius was especially criticized by Cyril, Pope (Patriarch) of Alexandria, who argued that Nestorius' teachings undermined the unity of Christ's divine and human natures at the Incarnation. Nestorius himself always insisted that his views were orthodox, though they were deemed heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431, leading to the Nestorian Schism, when churches supportive of Nestorius broke away from the rest of the Christian Church.
Nestorius developed his Christological views as an attempt to rationally explain and understand the incarnation of the divine Logos, the Second Person of the Holy Trinity as the man Jesus Christ. He had studied at the School of Antioch where his mentor had been Theodore of Mopsuestia; Theodore and other Antioch theologians had long taught a literalist interpretation of the Bible and stressed the distinctiveness of the human and divine natures of Jesus. Nestorius took his Antiochene leanings with him when he was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople by Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II in 428.<br/><br/> Nestorius' teachings became the root of controversy when he publicly challenged the long-used title Theotokos (Mother of God) for the Virgin Mary. He suggested that the title denied Christ's full humanity, arguing instead that Jesus had two loosely joined natures, the divine Logos and the human Jesus. As such he proposed Christotokos (Mother of Christ) as a more suitable title for Mary.<br/><br/> Nestorius' opponents found his teaching too close to the heresy of adoptionism – the idea that Christ had been born a man who had later been "adopted" as God's son. Nestorius was especially criticized by Cyril, Pope (Patriarch) of Alexandria, who argued that Nestorius' teachings undermined the unity of Christ's divine and human natures at the Incarnation. Nestorius himself always insisted that his views were orthodox, though they were deemed heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431, leading to the Nestorian Schism, when churches supportive of Nestorius broke away from the rest of the Christian Church.
The Nestorian Stele of Xi'an (also known as the Nestorian Stone, Nestorian Monument or Nestorian Tablet) is a Tang Dynasty Chinese stele erected in 781 that documents 150 years of history of early Christianity in China. The name of the stele can also be translated as 'A Monument Commemorating the Propagation of the Ta-Chin Luminous Religion in the Middle Kingdom', Daqin being the Chinese name for the Roman Empire in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD.<br/><br/> The stele is a 279-cm tall limestone block with text in both Chinese and Syriac, describing the existence of Christian communities in several cities in northern China. It reveals that the church had initially received recognition by the Tang Emperor Taizong, due to efforts of the Christian missionary Alopen in 635. A Nestorian Cross is incised above the main inscription in Chinese. Buried in 845, probably during religious suppression, the stele was not rediscovered until 1625.
Quanzhou was established in 718 during the Tang Dynasty (618–907). In those days, Guangzhou was China's greatest seaport, but this status would be surpassed later by Quanzhou. During the Song Dynasty (960–1279) and Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368), Quanzhou was one of the world's largest seaports, hosting a large community of foreign-born inhabitants from across the Eurasian world.<br/><br/> Due to its reputation, Quanzhou has been called the starting point of the Silk Road via the sea. From the Arabic name form of the city, Zayton, the word satin would be minted. In The Travels of Marco Polo, Quanzhou (called Zayton, T'swan-Chau or Chin-Cheu) was listed as the departure point for Marco Polo's expedition to escort the 17-year-old Mongol princess bride Kököchin to her new husband in the Persian Ilkhanate.
Gaochang (Qara-hoja in Uyghur) is located in present-day Xinjiang Province, 30 km from Turpan. The site is also known in early published reports as Chotscho, Khocho, or Qočo. The archaeological remains are just outside the town at a place originally called Idykut-schari or Idikutschari by local residents.<br/><br/> Artistic monuments of the city have been published by Albert von Le Coq. Gaochang was built in the 1st century BCE, it was an important site along the Silk Road. It played a key role as a transportation hub in western China. There is some documented history surviving today, perhaps stories passed on through oral tradition exist to detail the history. It was burnt down in wars in the 14th century. Old palace ruins and inside and outside cities can still be seen today.
Nestorianism is a Christological doctrine advanced by Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 428–431. The doctrine, which was informed by Nestorius's studies under Theodore of Mopsuestia at the School of Antioch, emphasizes the disunion between the human and divine natures of Jesus. Nestorius' teachings brought him into conflict with some other prominent church leaders, most notably Cyril of Alexandria, who criticized especially his rejection of the title Theotokos ('Mother of God') for the Virgin Mary.<br/><br/> Nestorius and his teachings were eventually condemned as heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451, leading to the Nestorian Schism in which churches supporting Nestorius broke with the rest of the Christian Church. Afterward many of Nestorius' supporters relocated to Sassanid Persia, where they affiliated with the local Christian community, known as the Church of the East. Over the next decades the Church of the East became increasingly Nestorian in doctrine, leading it to be known alternately as the Nestorian Church.<br/><br/> Christianity came to South India long before European colonialism. Malabar still has a Christian community dating back to the Apostle Thomas. Marco Polo saw a tomb with a Nestorian cross which was shown to him as the tomb of St.Thomas in South India.
Hunayn ibn Ishaq (also Hunain or Hunein) (Syriac: ܚܢܝܢ ܒܪ ܐܝܣܚܩ, Arabic: أبو زيد حنين بن إسحاق العبادي‎; ’Abū Zayd Ḥunayn ibn ’Isḥāq al-‘Ibādī, known in Latin as Johannitius) (809–873) was a famous and influential Assyrian Nestorian Christian scholar, physician, and scientist, known for his work in translating Greek scientific and medical works into Arabic and Syriac during the heyday of the Islamic Abbasid Caliphate.<br/><br/>Ḥunayn ibn Isḥaq was the most productive translator of Greek medical and scientific treatises in his day. He studied Greek and became known among the Arabs as the 'Sheikh of the translators'. He mastered four languages: Arabic, Syriac, Greek and Persian. His translations did not require corrections. Hunayn’s method was widely followed by later translators. He was originally from southern Iraq but he spent his working life in Baghdad, the center of the great ninth-century Greek-into-Arabic/Syriac translation movement.<br/><br/> The Isagoge (Greek: Εἰσαγωγή) or 'Introduction' to Aristotle's 'Categories', written by Porphyry in Greek and translated into Latin by Boethius, was the standard textbook on logic for at least a millennium after his death. It was composed by Porphyry in Sicily during the years 268-270 CE, and sent to Chrysaorium, according to all the ancient commentators Ammonius, Elias, and David. The work includes the highly influential hierarchical classification of genera and species from substance in general down to individuals, known as the Tree of Porphyry, and an introduction which mentions the problem of universals.<br/><br/> Boethius' translation of the work, in Latin, became a standard medieval textbook in European schools and universities, setting the stage for medieval philosophical-theological developments of logic and the problem of universals. Many writers, such as Boethius himself, Averroes, Abelard, Scotus, wrote commentaries on the book. Other writers such as William of Ockham incorporated them into their textbooks on logic.
Nestorius developed his Christological views as an attempt to rationally explain and understand the incarnation of the divine Logos, the Second Person of the Holy Trinity as the man Jesus Christ. He had studied at the School of Antioch where his mentor had been Theodore of Mopsuestia; Theodore and other Antioch theologians had long taught a literalist interpretation of the Bible and stressed the distinctiveness of the human and divine natures of Jesus. Nestorius took his Antiochene leanings with him when he was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople by Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II in 428.<br/><br/> Nestorius' teachings became the root of controversy when he publicly challenged the long-used title Theotokos (Mother of God) for the Virgin Mary. He suggested that the title denied Christ's full humanity, arguing instead that Jesus had two loosely joined natures, the divine Logos and the human Jesus. As such he proposed Christotokos (Mother of Christ) as a more suitable title for Mary.<br/><br/> Nestorius' opponents found his teaching too close to the heresy of adoptionism – the idea that Christ had been born a man who had later been "adopted" as God's son. Nestorius was especially criticized by Cyril, Pope (Patriarch) of Alexandria, who argued that Nestorius' teachings undermined the unity of Christ's divine and human natures at the Incarnation. Nestorius himself always insisted that his views were orthodox, though they were deemed heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431, leading to the Nestorian Schism, when churches supportive of Nestorius broke away from the rest of the Christian Church.
The Assyrian Church of the East faced a split in 1898, when a bishop and a number of followers from the Urmia area in Iran entered communion with the Russian Orthodox Church, and again in 1964 when some traditionalists responded to ecclesiastical reforms brought on by Patriarch Mar Eshai Shimun XXIII (1908–1975) by forming the independent Ancient Church of the East.<br/><br/> Today the Assyrian Church has about 170,000 members, mostly living in Iran, Iraq, and Syria. The Patriarchate of the Assyrian Church of the East is in exile in Chicago, and that of the Ancient Church of the East is in Baghdad.
Cyril of Alexandria (Greek: Κύριλλος Ἀλεξανδρείας; c. 376 – 444) was the Patriarch of Alexandria from 412 to 444. He was enthroned when the city was at the height of its influence and power within the Roman Empire. Cyril wrote extensively and was a leading protagonist in the Christological controversies of the later 4th and 5th centuries. He was a central figure in the First Council of Ephesus in 431, which led to the deposition of Nestorius as Patriarch of Constantinople.<br/><br/> Cyril is counted among the Church Fathers and the Doctors of the Church, and his reputation within the Christian world has resulted in his titles Pillar of Faith and Seal of all the Fathers, but Theodosius II, the Roman Emperor, condemned him for behaving like a 'proud pharaoh', and the Nestorian bishops at the Council of Ephesus declared him a heretic, labelling him as a 'monster, born and educated for the destruction of the church'.<br/><br/> Cyril is well-known due to his dispute with Nestorius and his supporter Patriarch John of Antioch, whom Cyril excluded from the Council of Ephesus for arriving late. He is also known for his involvement in the expulsion of Novatians and Jews from Alexandria and the murder of the Hellenistic philosopher Hypatia by Coptic monks. Historians disagree over the extent of his responsibility for these events.
The Nestorian Stele of Xi'an in 1907, a short time before it was moved from this outdoor location to the Stele Forest (Beilin) Museum. The Nestorian Stele (also known as the Nestorian Stone, Nestorian Monument or Nestorian Tablet) is a Tang Chinese stele erected in 781 that documents 150 years of history of early Christianity in China. It is a 279-cm tall limestone block with text in both Chinese and Syriac, describing the existence of Christian communities in several cities in northern China. It reveals that the church had initially received recognition by the Tang Emperor Taizong, due to efforts of the Christian missionary Alopen in 635. Buried in 845, probably during religious suppression, the stele was not rediscovered until 1625.
Nestorianism is a Christological doctrine advanced by Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 428–431. Nestorius and his teachings were eventually condemned as heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451, leading to the Nestorian Schism in which churches supporting Nestorius broke with the rest of the Christian Church. Afterward many of Nestorius' supporters relocated to Sassanid Persia, where they affiliated with the local Christian community, known as the Church of the East. Subsequently the Church of the East became increasingly Nestorian in doctrine, leading it to be known alternately as the Nestorian Church.
Saint Helena (Latin: Flavia Iulia Helena Augusta) also known as Saint Helen, Helena Augusta or Helena of Constantinople (ca. 246/50 – 18 August 330) was the consort of Emperor Constantius, and the mother of Emperor Constantine I. She is traditionally credited with finding the relics of the True Cross, with which she is invariably represented in Christian iconography.<br/><br/> Constantine the Great (Latin: Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus; c. 27 February 272[2] – 22 May 337), also known as Constantine I or Saint Constantine, was Roman Emperor from 306 to 337. Well known for being the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, along with co-Emperor Licinius, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan in 313, which proclaimed religious tolerance of all religions throughout the empire.
The Nestorian Stele of Xi'an (also known as the Nestorian Stone, Nestorian Monument or Nestorian Tablet) is a Tang Dynasty Chinese stele erected in 781 that documents 150 years of history of early Christianity in China. The name of the stele can also be translated as 'A Monument Commemorating the Propagation of the Ta-Chin Luminous Religion in the Middle Kingdom', Daqin being the Chinese name for the Roman Empire in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD.<br/><br/> The stele is a 279-cm tall limestone block with text in both Chinese and Syriac, describing the existence of Christian communities in several cities in northern China. It reveals that the church had initially received recognition by the Tang Emperor Taizong, due to efforts of the Christian missionary Alopen in 635. A Nestorian Cross is incised above the main inscription in Chinese. Buried in 845, probably during religious suppression, the stele was not rediscovered until 1625.
The Nestorian Stele (also known as the Nestorian Stone, Nestorian Monument or Nestorian Tablet) is a Tang Chinese stele erected in 781 that documents 150 years of history of early Christianity in China. It is a 279-cm tall limestone block with text in both Chinese and Syriac, describing the existence of Christian communities in several cities in northern China. It reveals that the church had initially received recognition by the Tang Emperor Taizong, due to efforts of the Christian missionary Alopen in 635. Buried in 845, probably during religious suppression, the stele was not rediscovered until 1625.
Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü, Hulegu or Halaku (c. 1217 – 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of Southwest Asia. Son of Tolui and the Kerait princess Sorghaghtani Beki, he was a grandson of Genghis Khan, and the brother of Arik Boke, Möngke Khan and Kublai Khan. Hulagu's army greatly expanded the southwestern portion of the Mongol Empire, founding the Ilkhanate of Persia, a precursor to the eventual Safavid dynasty, and then the modern state of Iran.<br/><br/> Doquz Khatun (also spelled Dokuz Khatun) was a Turkic Kerait princess of the 13th century, who was married to the Mongol ruler Hulagu. Their son Abaqa succeeded Hulagu upon his death. She was known to accompany Hulagu on campaigns. At the Sack of Baghdad in 1258, the Mongols massacred tens of thousands of inhabitants, but by the order of Doquz, the Christians were spared. Doquz Khatun was a Nestorian Christian, and is often mentioned as a great benefactor of the Christian faith. When Mongol envoys were sent to Europe, they also tried to use Doquz's Christianity to advantage, by claiming that Mongol princesses such as Doquz and Sorghaghtani Beki were daughters of the legendary Prester John. She died in 1265, the same year as her husband.
Nestorianism is a Christological doctrine advanced by Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 428–431. Nestorius and his teachings were eventually condemned as heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451, leading to the Nestorian Schism in which churches supporting Nestorius broke with the rest of the Christian Church. Afterward many of Nestorius' supporters relocated to Sassanid Persia, where they affiliated with the local Christian community, known as the Church of the East. Subsequently the Church of the East became increasingly Nestorian in doctrine, leading it to be known alternately as the Nestorian Church.
Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü, Hulegu or Halaku (c. 1217 – 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of Southwest Asia. Son of Tolui and the Kerait princess Sorghaghtani Beki, he was a grandson of Genghis Khan, and the brother of Arik Boke, Möngke Khan and Kublai Khan. Hulagu's army greatly expanded the southwestern portion of the Mongol Empire, founding the Ilkhanate of Persia, a precursor to the eventual Safavid dynasty, and then the modern state of Iran.<br/><br/> Doquz Khatun (also spelled Dokuz Khatun) was a Turkic Kerait princess of the 13th century, who was married to the Mongol ruler Hulagu. Their son Abaqa succeeded Hulagu upon his death. She was known to accompany Hulagu on campaigns. At the Sack of Baghdad in 1258, the Mongols massacred tens of thousands of inhabitants, but by the order of Doquz, the Christians were spared. Doquz Khatun was a Nestorian Christian, and is often mentioned as a great benefactor of the Christian faith. When Mongol envoys were sent to Europe, they also tried to use Doquz's Christianity to advantage, by claiming that Mongol princesses such as Doquz and Sorghaghtani Beki were daughters of the legendary Prester John. She died in 1265, the same year as her husband.
Nestorius developed his Christological views as an attempt to rationally explain and understand the incarnation of the divine Logos, the Second Person of the Holy Trinity as the man Jesus Christ. He had studied at the School of Antioch where his mentor had been Theodore of Mopsuestia; Theodore and other Antioch theologians had long taught a literalist interpretation of the Bible and stressed the distinctiveness of the human and divine natures of Jesus. Nestorius took his Antiochene leanings with him when he was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople by Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II in 428.<br/><br/> Nestorius' teachings became the root of controversy when he publicly challenged the long-used title Theotokos (Mother of God) for the Virgin Mary. He suggested that the title denied Christ's full humanity, arguing instead that Jesus had two loosely joined natures, the divine Logos and the human Jesus. As such he proposed Christotokos (Mother of Christ) as a more suitable title for Mary.<br/><br/> Nestorius' opponents found his teaching too close to the heresy of adoptionism – the idea that Christ had been born a man who had later been "adopted" as God's son. Nestorius was especially criticized by Cyril, Pope (Patriarch) of Alexandria, who argued that Nestorius' teachings undermined the unity of Christ's divine and human natures at the Incarnation. Nestorius himself always insisted that his views were orthodox, though they were deemed heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431, leading to the Nestorian Schism, when churches supportive of Nestorius broke away from the rest of the Christian Church.
Nestorianism is a Christological doctrine advanced by Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 428–431. Nestorius and his teachings were eventually condemned as heretical at the First Council of Ephesus in 431 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451, leading to the Nestorian Schism in which churches supporting Nestorius broke with the rest of the Christian Church. Afterward many of Nestorius' supporters relocated to Sassanid Persia, where they affiliated with the local Christian community, known as the Church of the East. Subsequently the Church of the East became increasingly Nestorian in doctrine, leading it to be known alternately as the Nestorian Church.
Justin Perkins (1805-1869) was born on a farm in Massachusetts, and educated at Amherst and the Andover Theological Seminary. From 1833 until shortly before his death in 1869, he served as missionary to the Nestorian Christians of Qajar Iran (1794-1925) under the auspices of the American Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions. He was the first American missionary in Qajar Iran, as well as an eminent scholar of Syriac. He developed an alphabet for the writing of modern Syriac, which was the Nestorians' vernacular, and established a press at Urmia (spelled Oroomiah by Perkins) in western Azerbaijan to print his translations of the New Testament (1846) and the Old Testament (1852) in both liturgical and modern Syriac.<br/><br/> Urmia, sometimes spelled, Orumieh, during the majority of the Pahlavi Dynasty (1925–1979) called Rezaiyeh), is a city in Northwestern Iran and the capital of West Azerbaijan Province. The city lies on an altitude of 1,330 m above sea level on the Shahar Chay river (City River). Urmia is the 10th most populated city in Iran with a population of about 600,000. The population is predominantly Azerbaijani with significant Kurdish, Assyrian and Armenian minorities.
Justin Perkins (1805-1869) was born on a farm in Massachusetts, and educated at Amherst and the Andover Theological Seminary. From 1833 until shortly before his death in 1869, he served as missionary to the Nestorian Christians of Qajar Iran (1794-1925) under the auspices of the American Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions. He was the first American missionary in Qajar Iran, as well as an eminent scholar of Syriac. He developed an alphabet for the writing of modern Syriac, which was the Nestorians' vernacular, and established a press at Urmia (spelled Oroomiah by Perkins) in western Azerbaijan to print his translations of the New Testament (1846) and the Old Testament (1852) in both liturgical and modern Syriac.<br/><br/> Urmia, sometimes spelled, Orumieh, during the majority of the Pahlavi Dynasty (1925–1979) called Rezaiyeh), is a city in Northwestern Iran and the capital of West Azerbaijan Province. The city lies on an altitude of 1,330 m above sea level on the Shahar Chay river (City River). Urmia is the 10th most populated city in Iran with a population of about 600,000. The population is predominantly Azerbaijani with significant Kurdish, Assyrian and Armenian minorities.
Justin Perkins (1805-1869) was born on a farm in Massachusetts, and educated at Amherst and the Andover Theological Seminary. From 1833 until shortly before his death in 1869, he served as missionary to the Nestorian Christians of Qajar Iran (1794-1925) under the auspices of the American Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions. He was the first American missionary in Qajar Iran, as well as an eminent scholar of Syriac. He developed an alphabet for the writing of modern Syriac, which was the Nestorians' vernacular, and established a press at Urmia (spelled Oroomiah by Perkins) in western Azerbaijan to print his translations of the New Testament (1846) and the Old Testament (1852) in both liturgical and modern Syriac.<br/><br/> Urmia, sometimes spelled, Orumieh, during the majority of the Pahlavi Dynasty (1925–1979) called Rezaiyeh), is a city in Northwestern Iran and the capital of West Azerbaijan Province. The city lies on an altitude of 1,330 m above sea level on the Shahar Chay river (City River). Urmia is the 10th most populated city in Iran with a population of about 600,000. The population is predominantly Azerbaijani with significant Kurdish, Assyrian and Armenian minorities.
Justin Perkins (1805-1869) was born on a farm in Massachusetts, and educated at Amherst and the Andover Theological Seminary. From 1833 until shortly before his death in 1869, he served as missionary to the Nestorian Christians of Qajar Iran (1794-1925) under the auspices of the American Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions. He was the first American missionary in Qajar Iran, as well as an eminent scholar of Syriac. He developed an alphabet for the writing of modern Syriac, which was the Nestorians' vernacular, and established a press at Urmia (spelled Oroomiah by Perkins) in western Azerbaijan to print his translations of the New Testament (1846) and the Old Testament (1852) in both liturgical and modern Syriac.<br/><br/> Urmia, sometimes spelled, Orumieh, during the majority of the Pahlavi Dynasty (1925–1979) called Rezaiyeh), is a city in Northwestern Iran and the capital of West Azerbaijan Province. The city lies on an altitude of 1,330 m above sea level on the Shahar Chay river (City River). Urmia is the 10th most populated city in Iran with a population of about 600,000. The population is predominantly Azerbaijani with significant Kurdish, Assyrian and Armenian minorities.
Justin Perkins (1805-1869) was born on a farm in Massachusetts, and educated at Amherst and the Andover Theological Seminary. From 1833 until shortly before his death in 1869, he served as missionary to the Nestorian Christians of Qajar Iran (1794-1925) under the auspices of the American Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions. He was the first American missionary in Qajar Iran, as well as an eminent scholar of Syriac. He developed an alphabet for the writing of modern Syriac, which was the Nestorians' vernacular, and established a press at Urmia (spelled Oroomiah by Perkins) in western Azerbaijan to print his translations of the New Testament (1846) and the Old Testament (1852) in both liturgical and modern Syriac.<br/><br/> Urmia, sometimes spelled, Orumieh, during the majority of the Pahlavi Dynasty (1925–1979) called Rezaiyeh), is a city in Northwestern Iran and the capital of West Azerbaijan Province. The city lies on an altitude of 1,330 m above sea level on the Shahar Chay river (City River). Urmia is the 10th most populated city in Iran with a population of about 600,000. The population is predominantly Azerbaijani with significant Kurdish, Assyrian and Armenian minorities.
Justin Perkins (1805-1869) was born on a farm in Massachusetts, and educated at Amherst and the Andover Theological Seminary. From 1833 until shortly before his death in 1869, he served as missionary to the Nestorian Christians of Qajar Iran (1794-1925) under the auspices of the American Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions. He was the first American missionary in Qajar Iran, as well as an eminent scholar of Syriac. He developed an alphabet for the writing of modern Syriac, which was the Nestorians' vernacular, and established a press at Urmia (spelled Oroomiah by Perkins) in western Azerbaijan to print his translations of the New Testament (1846) and the Old Testament (1852) in both liturgical and modern Syriac.<br/><br/> Urmia, sometimes spelled, Orumieh, during the majority of the Pahlavi Dynasty (1925–1979) called Rezaiyeh), is a city in Northwestern Iran and the capital of West Azerbaijan Province. The city lies on an altitude of 1,330 m above sea level on the Shahar Chay river (City River). Urmia is the 10th most populated city in Iran with a population of about 600,000. The population is predominantly Azerbaijani with significant Kurdish, Assyrian and Armenian minorities.
Nestorius was Archbishop of Constantinople from 10 April 428 to 22 June 431. Drawing on his studies at the School of Antioch he devised a doctrine that later bore his name, Nestorianism, which emphasized the disunity of the human and divine natures of Christ. His teachings, which included a rejection of the long-used title of Theotokos ('Mother of God') for the Virgin Mary, brought him into conflict with other prominent churchmen of the time; most notably Cyril of Alexandria, who accused him of heresy.<br/><br/> Nestorius sought to defend himself at the First Council of Ephesus in 431, but instead he found himself formally condemned for heresy and removed from his see. Thereafter he retired to a monaster, where he asserted his orthodoxy for the rest of his life. Despite his acquiescence, many of his supporters split with the rest of the church in the Nestorian Schism, and over the next decades a number of them relocated to Persia. Thereafter Nestorianism became the official position of the Church of the East.