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Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis (1008–1062) was the fourth ruler of the Zirids in Ifriqiya, reigning from 1016 to 1062.<br/><br/>

He is considered to be the author of the <i>Kitab umdat al kuttab wa uddat dhawi al-albab</i> ('Staff of the Scribes') on the preparation of types of inks, the preparation of coloured inks, metallic inks, the colouring of dyes and mixtures, secret writing and the making of paper.
Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.<br/><br/>

Lehnert was born in Gross Aupa (now Velká Úpa), then in Bohemia and now in the Czech Republic. With Ernst Heinrich Landrock, he based a photographic company in, successively, Tunis, Munich, Leipzig and Cairo, publishing the works as by 'Lehnert & Landrock'.<br/><br/>

From the 1860s onwards photographs of people with different cultural values and sexual morality became popular for artistic and erotic reasons. These nude images often say more about the fantasies and culture of the photographers than about the portrayed cultures. According to some critics they border on sexism and ethnocentrism.<br/><br/>

Lehnert spent the last part of his life at Redeyef, Gafza Oasis, Tunisia, where he died.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Hammamet (from the Arabic al-hammamat, 'the baths') has been known since Roman times for the healing property of its waters. Roman ruins still survive at the nearby sites of Siagum and Pupput, but Hammamet in its present form dates from the mid-15th century, when the old city, known as the medina, and the suq, or main bazaar, were built.<br/><br/>

Mediaeval Hammamet was prepared for defence – the Spaniards fortified the kasbah in the 16th century – but in fact the history of the town has been pleasantly peaceful. There are no records of invaders troubling the small fishing settlement, which acquired a reputation for religious learning through the number and proficiency of its murabitin, or saints and holy men.
The Blue Qur'an (Arabic: لمصحف الأزرق) is a late 9th - early 10th century Tunisian Qur'an manuscript in Kufic calligraphy. It is written in gold (chrysography) on parchment died with indigo, a unique aspect. It is among the most famous works of Islamic art, and has been called 'one of the most extraordinary luxury manuscripts ever created'.<br/><br/>

The manuscript was dispersed during the Ottoman period; today most of it is located in the National Institute of Art and Archaeology in Tunis, with detached folios in museums worldwide.
The Blue Qur'an (Arabic: لمصحف الأزرق) is a late 9th - early 10th century Tunisian Qur'an manuscript in Kufic calligraphy. It is written in gold (chrysography) on parchment died with indigo, a unique aspect. It is among the most famous works of Islamic art, and has been called 'one of the most extraordinary luxury manuscripts ever created'.<br/><br/>

The manuscript was dispersed during the Ottoman period; today most of it is located in the National Institute of Art and Archaeology in Tunis, with detached folios in museums worldwide.
Hadith Bayāḍ wa Riyāḍ (The Story of Bayad and Riyad) or Qissat Bayad wa Riyad is a 13th-century Arabic love story. The main characters of the tale are Bayad, a merchant's son and a foreigner from Damascus, Riyad, a well educated girl in the court of an unnamed Hajib (vizier or minister) of 'Iraq (Mesopotamia) and a 'Lady' (al-sayyida).<br/><br/>

The Hadith Bayad wa Riyad manuscript is believed to be the only illustrated manuscript known to have survived from more than eight centuries of Muslim and Arab presence in Spain. The sole manuscript is in the Vatican Library, where it is catalogued as Codex Vat. Arabo 368.This fragment of the medieval love story of Bayad and Riyad may have been taken from Tunis by the troops of Charles V. It is one of the rarest and most singular Arabic manuscripts in the Vatican collection.<br/><br/>

Written in maghribi script, it was probably copied in Spain in the first half of the thirteenth century from an eastern manuscript of the Baghdad school. The miniaturist, however, adapted the original illustrations to a western setting and changed oriental architectural details to Spanish ones.<br/><br/>

This codex remains one of the only known examples of Muslim figurative painting in Spain. In the page shown here, we see Bayad receiving a letter from Riyad in the house of three women. The appearance of the house is clearly western rather than eastern.
Hadith Bayāḍ wa Riyāḍ (The Story of Bayad and Riyad) or Qissat Bayad wa Riyad is a 13th-century Arabic love story. The main characters of the tale are Bayad, a merchant's son and a foreigner from Damascus, Riyad, a well educated girl in the court of an unnamed Hajib (vizier or minister) of 'Iraq (Mesopotamia) and a 'Lady' (al-sayyida).<br/><br/>

The Hadith Bayad wa Riyad manuscript is believed to be the only illustrated manuscript known to have survived from more than eight centuries of Muslim and Arab presence in Spain. The sole manuscript is in the Vatican Library, where it is catalogued as Codex Vat. Arabo 368.This fragment of the medieval love story of Bayad and Riyad may have been taken from Tunis by the troops of Charles V. It is one of the rarest and most singular Arabic manuscripts in the Vatican collection.<br/><br/>

Written in maghribi script, it was probably copied in Spain in the first half of the thirteenth century from an eastern manuscript of the Baghdad school. The miniaturist, however, adapted the original illustrations to a western setting and changed oriental architectural details to Spanish ones.<br/><br/>

This codex remains one of the only known examples of Muslim figurative painting in Spain.
Hadith Bayāḍ wa Riyāḍ (The Story of Bayad and Riyad) or Qissat Bayad wa Riyad is a 13th-century Arabic love story. The main characters of the tale are Bayad, a merchant's son and a foreigner from Damascus, Riyad, a well educated girl in the court of an unnamed Hajib (vizier or minister) of 'Iraq (Mesopotamia) and a 'Lady' (al-sayyida).<br/><br/>

The Hadith Bayad wa Riyad manuscript is believed to be the only illustrated manuscript known to have survived from more than eight centuries of Muslim and Arab presence in Spain. The sole manuscript is in the Vatican Library, where it is catalogued as Codex Vat. Arabo 368.This fragment of the medieval love story of Bayad and Riyad may have been taken from Tunis by the troops of Charles V. It is one of the rarest and most singular Arabic manuscripts in the Vatican collection.<br/><br/>

Written in maghribi script, it was probably copied in Spain in the first half of the thirteenth century from an eastern manuscript of the Baghdad school. The miniaturist, however, adapted the original illustrations to a western setting and changed oriental architectural details to Spanish ones.<br/><br/>

This codex remains one of the only known examples of Muslim figurative painting in Spain. In the page shown here, we see Bayad receiving a letter from Riyad in the house of three women. The appearance of the house is clearly western rather than eastern.
Mosaic of Fish Facing Right, by an unknown Roman Artist found in Tunis. The fish is a fertility symbol and was also used by both Christians and Jews to refer to the faithful.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
The photographer J. Geiser had a studio in Algiers at the beginning of the 20th century.
The photographer J. Geiser had a studio in Algiers at the beginning of the 20th century.
Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) and Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.<br/><br/>

Landrock was born in Reinsdorf, Saxony, in 1878, and died in Kreuzlingen, Switzerland, in 1966. With Ernst Heinrich Landrock, he based a photographic company in, successively, Tunis, Munich, Leipzig and Cairo, publishing the works as by 'Lehnert & Landrock'.<br/><br/>

From the 1860s onwards photographs of people with different cultural values and sexual morality became popular for artistic and erotic reasons. These nude images often say more about the fantasies and culture of the photographers than about the portrayed cultures. According to some critics they border on sexism and ethnocentrism.<br/><br/>

Landrock spent the last part of his life at Kreuzlingen, Switzerland, where he died.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
The Beys of Tunis were the monarchs of Tunisia from 1705, when the Husainid Dynasty acceded to the throne, until 1957, when monarchy was abolished.<br/><br/>

Ali II ibn Hussein (24 November 1712 – 26 May 1782) (Arabic: أبو الحسن علي باي‎) was the fourth leader of the Husainid Dynasty and the ruler of Tunisia from 1759 until his death in 1782.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Photo in the tradition of Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers, and occasionally androgynous young men.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Photo in the tradition of Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Photo in the tradition of Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
The Second Punic War (218 BC - 201 BC) is most remembered for the Carthaginian Hannibal's crossing of the Alps. He and his army invaded Italy from the north and resoundingly defeated the Roman army in several battles, but never achieved the ultimate goal of causing a political break between Rome and its allies.<br/><br/>

While fighting Hannibal in Italy, Hispania and Sicily, Rome also simultaneously fought against Macedon in the First Macedonian War. Eventually, the war was taken to Africa, where Carthage was defeated at the Battle of Zama by Scipio Africanus. The end of the war saw Carthage's control reduced to only the city itself.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II. They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Kairouan (Arabic: القيروان‎ Al Qairawān), also known as Kirwan or al-Qayrawan, is the capital of the Kairouan Governorate in Tunisia. Referred to as the Islamic Cultural Capital, it is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The city was founded by the Arabs around 670.<br/><br/>

In the time of Caliph Mu'awiya (reigned 661-680), it became an important centre for Islamic and Quranic learning, and thus attracting a large number of Muslims from various parts of the world, next only to Mecca and Medina. The holy Mosque of Uqba is situated in the city. It is considered by many Magribi Muslims to be Islam's fourth holiest city.
Lehnert & Landrock: Rudolf Franz Lehnert (Czech) and Ernst Heinrich Landrock (German) had a photographic company based in Tunis, Cairo and Leipzig before World War II.<br/><br/> 

They specialised in somewhat risque Orientalist images of young Arab and Bedouin women, often dancers.
Carthage (Latin: Carthago or Karthago, Ancient Greek: Karkhēdōn, Arabic: Qarṭāj‎, Berber: Kartajen, meaning New City) is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC. It is currently a suburb of Tunis, Tunisia, with a population (2004 Census) of 20,715.<br/><br/>

The first civilization that developed within the city's sphere of influence is referred to as Punic (a form of the word Phoenician) or Carthaginian. The city of Carthage is located on the eastern side of Lake Tunis across from the centre of Tunis. According to Roman legend it was founded in 814 BC by Phoenician colonists from Tyre under the leadership of Elissa (Queen Dido).<br/><br/>

It became a large and rich city and thus a major power in the Mediterranean. The resulting rivalry with Syracuse and Rome was accompanied by several wars with respective invasions of each other's homeland.