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Palmanova is a town and municipality in northeastern Italy. It is an excellent example of a bastion / star fort of the design favoured in the Late Renaissance era. First built by the Venetians in 1593, the fort-town was designed by Vincenzo Scamozzi. A second phase of construction occurred between 1658 and 1690, with final fortifications completed under the Napoleonic domination of 1806-1813.
The Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, usually just called the Frari, is a church located in the Campo dei Frari at the heart of the San Polo district of Venice, Italy.<br/><br/> In 1231, under Doge Jacopo Tiepolo, the city donated land at this site to establish a monastery and church belonging to the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor. This edifice proved too small and a three nave church was begun in 1250, and not completed until 1338. Work almost immediately began on its much larger replacement, the current church, which took over a century to build.
The Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, usually just called the Frari, is a church located in the Campo dei Frari at the heart of the San Polo district of Venice, Italy.<br/><br/> In 1231, under Doge Jacopo Tiepolo, the city donated land at this site to establish a monastery and church belonging to the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor. This edifice proved too small and a three nave church was begun in 1250, and not completed until 1338. Work almost immediately began on its much larger replacement, the current church, which took over a century to build.
The Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, usually just called the Frari, is a church located in the Campo dei Frari at the heart of the San Polo district of Venice, Italy.<br/><br/> In 1231, under Doge Jacopo Tiepolo, the city donated land at this site to establish a monastery and church belonging to the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor. This edifice proved too small and a three nave church was begun in 1250, and not completed until 1338. Work almost immediately began on its much larger replacement, the current church, which took over a century to build.
The Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, usually just called the Frari, is a church located in the Campo dei Frari at the heart of the San Polo district of Venice, Italy.<br/><br/> In 1231, under Doge Jacopo Tiepolo, the city donated land at this site to establish a monastery and church belonging to the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor. This edifice proved too small and a three nave church was begun in 1250, and not completed until 1338. Work almost immediately began on its much larger replacement, the current church, which took over a century to build.
The Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, usually just called the Frari, is a church located in the Campo dei Frari at the heart of the San Polo district of Venice, Italy.<br/><br/> In 1231, under Doge Jacopo Tiepolo, the city donated land at this site to establish a monastery and church belonging to the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor. This edifice proved too small and a three nave church was begun in 1250, and not completed until 1338. Work almost immediately began on its much larger replacement, the current church, which took over a century to build.
The Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, usually just called the Frari, is a church located in the Campo dei Frari at the heart of the San Polo district of Venice, Italy.<br/><br/> In 1231, under Doge Jacopo Tiepolo, the city donated land at this site to establish a monastery and church belonging to the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor. This edifice proved too small and a three nave church was begun in 1250, and not completed until 1338. Work almost immediately began on its much larger replacement, the current church, which took over a century to build.
The Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, usually just called the Frari, is a church located in the Campo dei Frari at the heart of the San Polo district of Venice, Italy.<br/><br/> In 1231, under Doge Jacopo Tiepolo, the city donated land at this site to establish a monastery and church belonging to the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor. This edifice proved too small and a three nave church was begun in 1250, and not completed until 1338. Work almost immediately began on its much larger replacement, the current church, which took over a century to build.
The Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, usually just called the Frari, is a church located in the Campo dei Frari at the heart of the San Polo district of Venice, Italy.<br/><br/> In 1231, under Doge Jacopo Tiepolo, the city donated land at this site to establish a monastery and church belonging to the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor. This edifice proved too small and a three nave church was begun in 1250, and not completed until 1338. Work almost immediately began on its much larger replacement, the current church, which took over a century to build.
The Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, usually just called the Frari, is a church located in the Campo dei Frari at the heart of the San Polo district of Venice, Italy.<br/><br/> In 1231, under Doge Jacopo Tiepolo, the city donated land at this site to establish a monastery and church belonging to the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor. This edifice proved too small and a three nave church was begun in 1250, and not completed until 1338. Work almost immediately began on its much larger replacement, the current church, which took over a century to build.
The Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, usually just called the Frari, is a church located in the Campo dei Frari at the heart of the San Polo district of Venice, Italy.<br/><br/> In 1231, under Doge Jacopo Tiepolo, the city donated land at this site to establish a monastery and church belonging to the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor. This edifice proved too small and a three nave church was begun in 1250, and not completed until 1338. Work almost immediately began on its much larger replacement, the current church, which took over a century to build.
The Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, usually just called the Frari, is a church located in the Campo dei Frari at the heart of the San Polo district of Venice, Italy.<br/><br/> In 1231, under Doge Jacopo Tiepolo, the city donated land at this site to establish a monastery and church belonging to the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor. This edifice proved too small and a three nave church was begun in 1250, and not completed until 1338. Work almost immediately began on its much larger replacement, the current church, which took over a century to build.
The Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, usually just called the Frari, is a church located in the Campo dei Frari at the heart of the San Polo district of Venice, Italy.<br/><br/> In 1231, under Doge Jacopo Tiepolo, the city donated land at this site to establish a monastery and church belonging to the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor. This edifice proved too small and a three nave church was begun in 1250, and not completed until 1338. Work almost immediately began on its much larger replacement, the current church, which took over a century to build.
The Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, usually just called the Frari, is a church located in the Campo dei Frari at the heart of the San Polo district of Venice, Italy.<br/><br/> In 1231, under Doge Jacopo Tiepolo, the city donated land at this site to establish a monastery and church belonging to the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor. This edifice proved too small and a three nave church was begun in 1250, and not completed until 1338. Work almost immediately began on its much larger replacement, the current church, which took over a century to build.
Giuseppe Tartini (8 April 1692 – 26 February 1770) was born in Piran, a town on the peninsula of Istria, in the Republic of Venice (now in Slovenia).<br/><br/> Tartini's most famous work is the <i>Devil's Trill Sonata</i>, a solo violin sonata that requires a number of technically demanding double stop trills and is difficult even by modern standards.
Giuseppe Tartini (8 April 1692 – 26 February 1770) was born in Piran, a town on the peninsula of Istria, in the Republic of Venice (now in Slovenia).<br/><br/> Tartini's most famous work is the <i>Devil's Trill Sonata</i>, a solo violin sonata that requires a number of technically demanding double stop trills and is difficult even by modern standards.
Giuseppe Tartini (8 April 1692 – 26 February 1770) was born in Piran, a town on the peninsula of Istria, in the Republic of Venice (now in Slovenia).<br/><br/> Tartini's most famous work is the <i>Devil's Trill Sonata</i>, a solo violin sonata that requires a number of technically demanding double stop trills and is difficult even by modern standards.
Nicosia is the largest city on the island of Cyprus and its capital, located near the centre of the Mesaoria plain on the banks of the Pedieos River. Its well-preserved walls mark it as a star fort, built by the Venetians in 1567 due to the fears of an Ottoman invasion, which occurred in 1570.
Palmanova is a town and municipality in northeastern Italy. It is an excellent example of a bastion / star fort of the design favoured in the Late Renaissance era. First built by the Venetians in 1593, the fort-town was designed by Vincenzo Scamozzi. A second phase of construction occurred between 1658 and 1690, with final fortifications completed under the Napoleonic domination of 1806-1813.
Mehmed II or Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror (30 March 1432 – 3 May 1481) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire twice, first for a short time from 1444 to September 1446, and later from February 1451 to 1481.<br/><br/> At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople and brought an end to the Byzantine Empire, transforming the Ottoman state into an empire. Mehmed continued his conquests in Asia, with the Anatolian reunification, and in Europe, as far as Bosnia and Croatia. Mehmed II is regarded as a national hero in Turkey, and among other things, Istanbul's Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, Fatih University and Fatih College are all named after him.
Galileo Galilei (15 Feb. 1564—8 Jan. 1642) was an Italian physicist, mathematician, philosopher and astronomer who played a pivotal role in establishing modern science at a time when contradiction of religion was considered heresy. It was as an astronomer that he was most controversial. Galileo developed telescopes that confirmed the phases of Venus, and the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), as well as sunspots.<br/><br/> In 1610, while a majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric opinion that the Earth was the centre of the universe, Galileo came out in support of Copernicus' heliocentric view that the Sun was at the center of the solar system.<br/><br/> Galileo's opinions were met with outrage and bitter opposition, and he was denounced to the Roman Inquisition. In February 1616, although he had been cleared of any offence, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as 'false and contrary to [Christian] Scripture' and forced Galileo to renounce his scientific conclusions.<br/><br/> However, in 1632, Galileo published 'Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems', in which he again defended heliocentrism. He was tried by the Inquisition, found 'vehemently suspect of heresy', forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Gentile Bellini (c. 1429 – 23 February 1507) was an Italian painter of the school of Venice. He came from Venice's leading family of painters, and at least in the early part of his career was more highly regarded than his younger brother Giovanni Bellini, the reverse of the case today.<br/><br/> Now housed at the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston, this painting reflects Bellini’s passion for Eastern cultures. Originally commissioned by Fatih Sultan Mehmet II in 1479 to go to Constantinople to paint portraits of the sultan for two years, the Venetian painter was strongly influenced by Ottoman traditions and fashions.
Selim I (Ottoman Turkish: سليم اوّل, Modern Turkish: I.Selim), nicknamed Yavuz, 'the Stern' or 'the Steadfast' (October 10, 1465/1466/1470 – September 22, 1520), was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1512 to 1520.<br/><br/>His reign is notable for the enormous expansion of the Empire, particularly his conquest between 1516-1517 of the entire Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt, which included all of Sham, Hejaz, Tihamah, and Egypt itself. With the heart of the Arab World now under their control, the Ottomans became the dominant power in the region, and in the Islamic world. Upon conquering Egypt, Selim took the title of Caliph of Islam, being the first Ottoman sultan to do so. He was also granted the title of 'Khâdim ül Haramain ish Sharifain' (Servant of the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina), by the Sharif of Mecca in 1517.<br/><br/>Selim's reign represented a sudden change in the expansion policy of the empire, which was working mostly against the West and the Beyliks before his reign. On the eve of his death in 1520, the Ottoman Empire spanned almost 1 billion acres (about 4 million square kilometers or 4 square megameters), having tripled in size during Selim's reign.
Anonymous painting from the Sarayi Album or 'Conqueror's Album'. This minature by an unknown painter is one of the two portraits that give their name to the 'Conqueror's Album'.<br/><br/> Mehmed II or Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror (30 March 1432 – 3 May 1481) (Ottoman Turkish: محمد ثانى, Meḥmed-i sÌ ÄnÄ«; Turkish: II. Mehmet; also known as el-FÄtiḥ, الÙاتح, 'the Conqueror' in Ottoman Turkish; in modern Turkish, Fatih Sultan Mehmet; also called Mahomet II in early modern Europe) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire twice, first for a short time from 1444 to September 1446, and later from February 1451 to 1481.<br/><br/> At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople and brought an end to the Byzantine Empire, transforming the Ottoman state into an empire. Mehmed continued his conquests in Asia, with the Anatolian reunification, and in Europe, as far as Bosnia and Croatia. Mehmed II is regarded as a national hero in Turkey, and among other things, Istanbul's Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, Fatih University and Fatih College are all named after him.
The Black Death was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, peaking in Europe between 1348 and 1350. Of several competing theories, the dominant explanation for the Black Death is the plague theory, which attributes the outbreak to the bacterium Yersinia pestis.<br/><br/> Thought to have started in China, it travelled along the Silk Road and reached the Crimea by 1346. From there, probably carried by Oriental rat fleas living on the black rats that were regular passengers on merchant ships, it spread throughout the Mediterranean and Europe.<br/><br/> The Black Death is estimated to have killed 30–60 percent of Europe's population, reducing the world's population from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and 375 million in the 14th century.<br/><br/> The aftermath of the plague created a series of religious, social and economic upheavals, which had profound effects on the course of European history. It took 150 years for Europe's population to recover. The plague returned at various times, killing more people, until it died out in Europe in the 19th century.
The Battle of Lepanto took place on 7 October 1571 when a fleet of the Holy League, a coalition of Catholic maritime states, decisively defeated the main fleet of the Ottoman Empire in five hours of fighting on the northern edge of the Gulf of Patras, off western Greece. The Ottoman forces sailing westwards from their naval station in Lepanto (Turkish: Ä°nebahtı; Greek: ΝαÏπακτος or Έπαχτος Naupaktos or Épahtos) met the Holy League forces, which had come from Messina.<br/><br/> The Victory of the Holy League prevented the Mediterranean Sea from becoming an uncontested highway for Muslim forces, protected Italy from a major Ottoman invasion, and prevented the Ottomans from advancing further into the southern flank of Europe. Lepanto was the last major naval battle in the Mediterranean fought entirely between galleys, and has been assigned great symbolic importance.
The Battle of Lepanto took place on 7 October 1571 when a fleet of the Holy League, a coalition of Catholic maritime states, decisively defeated the main fleet of the Ottoman Empire in five hours of fighting on the northern edge of the Gulf of Patras, off western Greece. The Ottoman forces sailing westwards from their naval station in Lepanto (Turkish: Ä°nebahtı; Greek: ΝαÏπακτος or Έπαχτος Naupaktos or Épahtos) met the Holy League forces, which had come from Messina.<br/><br/> The Victory of the Holy League prevented the Mediterranean Sea from becoming an uncontested highway for Muslim forces, protected Italy from a major Ottoman invasion, and prevented the Ottomans from advancing further into the southern flank of Europe. Lepanto was the last major naval battle in the Mediterranean fought entirely between galleys, and has been assigned great symbolic importance.
Ali Pasha was commander-in-chief of the Ottoman naval forces at the Battle of Lepanto on 7 October 1571. Selim had entrusted him with one of the most precious possessions of the Ottoman Sultans, the great 'Banner of the Caliphs', a huge green banner heavily embroidered with texts from the Qur'an and with the name of Allah emblazoned upon it 28,900 times in golden letters. It was intended to provide an incentive for him and his men to do their best in battle.<br/><br/> Still quite young, like his counterpart Don Juan, he was more of a land soldier than a naval tactician, and his failure to keep his lines together and keep his individual squadrons from charging like cavalry units in a land battle allowed the Christian forces to penetrate his battle line in various places and to surround and defeat the isolated ships.<br/><br/> He was also somewhat of a firebrand and almost immediately sought the direct confrontation with his opposite number. His flagship, the galley Sultana, battled head-to-head with Don Juan's flagship La Real, was boarded and, after about one hour of bloody fighting, with reinforcements being provided to both sides by other galleys in their respective fleets, was captured.<br/><br/> Ali Pasha died at the hands of a Macedonian employed by the Venetians. He was shot in the head by a musket ball, fell to the deck and was beheaded by a zealous Spanish soldier. His head was then displayed upon a pike. This, and the capture of the Banner of the Caliphs by the Real, led to a collapse in Turkish morale, greatly contributing to their defeat in the Battle of Lepanto.
Giovanni Mocenigo (1409 – September 14, 1485), Pietro Mocenigo's brother, was doge of Venice from 1478 to 1485. He fought at sea against the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II and on land against Ercole I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, from whom he recaptured Rovigo and the Polesine. He was interred in the Basilica di Santi Giovanni e Paolo, a traditional burial place of the doges.
The Republic of Venice (Italian: Repubblica di Venezia, Venetian: Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia) or Venetian Republic was a state originating from the city of Venice in Northeastern Italy. It existed for over a millennium, from the late 7th century until 1797.<br/><br/> It was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice (Italian: Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia, Venetian: Serenìsima Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia) and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in reference to its title as one of the 'Most Serene Republics'. The Republic's modern reputation is widely based on its preference for economic supremacy over military might, despite its long history of war and conquest.
The Republic of Venice (Italian: Repubblica di Venezia, Venetian: Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia) or Venetian Republic was a state originating from the city of Venice in Northeastern Italy. It existed for over a millennium, from the late 7th century until 1797.<br/><br/> It was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice (Italian: Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia, Venetian: Serenìsima Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia) and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in reference to its title as one of the 'Most Serene Republics'. The Republic's modern reputation is widely based on its preference for economic supremacy over military might, despite its long history of war and conquest.
Foscari, of an ancient noble family, served the Republic of Venice in numerous official capacities—as ambassador, president of the Forty, member of the Council of Ten, inquisitor, Procuratore di San Marco, before he was elected in 1423. His task as doge was to lead Venice in a long and protracted series of wars against Milan, governed by the Visconti, who were attempting to dominate all of northern Italy.<br/><br/> Despite the justification of Venetian embroilment in the terraferma that was offered in Foscari's funeral oration, delivered by the humanist senator and historian Bernardo Giustiniani, and some encouraging notable victories, the war was extremely costly to Venice, whose real source of wealth and power was at sea, and to her ally Florence; they were eventually overcome by the forces of Milan under the leadership of Francesco Sforza. Sforza soon made peace with Florence, however, leaving Venice adrift.<br/><br/> In 1445, Foscari's only surviving son, Jacopo, was tried by the Council of Ten on charges of bribery and corruption and exiled from the city. Two further trials, in 1450 and 1456, led to Jacopo's imprisonment on Crete and his eventual death there.<br/><br/> News of Jacopo's death caused Foscari to withdraw from his government duties, and in October 1457 the Council of Ten forced him to resign. However, his death a week later provoked such public outcry that he was given a state funeral.
The Doge of Venice (derived from Latin dux, 'leader'), often mistranslated Duke (the Italian word for duke is 'Duca') was the chief magistrate and leader of the Most Serene Republic of Venice for over a thousand years. Doges of Venice were elected for life by the city-state's aristocracy. Commonly the person selected as Doge was the shrewdest elder in the city.<br/><br/> Contrary to popular belief the doge was not a duke in the modern sense, nor was a doge the equivalent of a hereditary duke. The doge was the senior-most elected official of Venice and Genoa; both cities were republics and elected doges. A doge was referred to variously by the titles 'My Lord the Doge' (Monsignor el Doxe), 'Most Serene Prince' (Serenissimo Principe), and 'His Serenity' (Sua Serenità).
The Republic of Venice (Italian: Repubblica di Venezia, Venetian: Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia) or Venetian Republic was a state originating from the city of Venice in Northeastern Italy. It existed for over a millennium, from the late 7th century until 1797.<br/><br/> It was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice (Italian: Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia, Venetian: Serenìsima Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia) and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in reference to its title as one of the 'Most Serene Republics'. The Republic's modern reputation is widely based on its preference for economic supremacy over military might, despite its long history of war and conquest.
Leonardo Loredan (or Loredano) (November 16, 1436 – June 21, 1521) was the doge of the Republic of Venice from 1501 until his death, in the course of the War of the League of Cambrai. Upon the death of Pope Alexander VI in 1503, Venice occupied several territories in the northern Papal States. When Julius II was elected as Alexander's eventual successor, the Venetians expected their seizure of papal territory to be tacitly accepted, as Julius had been nicknamed Il Veneziano for his pro-Venetian sympathies. But instead the new Pope excommunicated the Republic and united the Papal States in an alliance with France, the Holy Roman Empire and several other Christian states.<br/><br/> The Doge's problems did not end in Europe. In 1509, the Battle of Diu took place, in India, where the Portuguese fleet defeated an Ottoman and Mameluk fleet, which had been transferred from the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea with Venetian help. The defeat marked the end of the profitable Spice trade, which was bought by Venetians from the Mameluks in Egypt and in turn monopolised its sale in Europe, reaping great revenues from it.<br/><br/> After losing to the league's forces at the Battle of Agnadello, Venice found her holdings in Italy shrinking exponentially. Soon Padua, Venice's most strategically vital Terra Firma holding, had fallen, and Venice herself was threatened. Loredan united the population, calling for sacrifice and total mobilisation. Padua was retaken, though Venice was still forced to accept a reluctant peace, following which it joined the Pope as only a junior ally in his new war against the French. When the Pope betrayed Venice once again, upon the verge of victory over France, Venice retaliated by aligning themselves with the French King Louis XII and were able to secure back all the territories they had lost. In addition, the Papacy was forced to repay man.outstanding debts to the Loredan family totaling approximately 500,000 Ducats.
The Doge of Venice (derived from Latin dux, 'leader'), often mistranslated Duke (the Italian word for duke is 'Duca') was the chief magistrate and leader of the Most Serene Republic of Venice for over a thousand years. Doges of Venice were elected for life by the city-state's aristocracy. Commonly the person selected as Doge was the shrewdest elder in the city.<br/><br/> Contrary to popular belief the doge was not a duke in the modern sense, nor was a doge the equivalent of a hereditary duke. The doge was the senior-most elected official of Venice and Genoa; both cities were republics and elected doges. A doge was referred to variously by the titles 'My Lord the Doge' (Monsignor el Doxe), 'Most Serene Prince' (Serenissimo Principe), and 'His Serenity' (Sua Serenità).
Michael of Rhodes, a Venetian galley commander, wrote a manuscript describing his knowledge of mathematics, ships and shipbuilding, navigation, and time reckoning. It contains some of the earliest surviving portolan aids to navigation and is the world's first known treatise on shipbuilding.
For centuries Venice was Europe’s prime trading partner with the Middle East and the Byzantine Empire in particular. Venetian naval and commercial power was unrivalled in Europe until it lost a series of wars to the Ottoman armies in the 15th century. The city lost some 50,000 people to the Black Death in 1575-77, but remained a major manufacturing center and port well into the 18th century.
Mehmed II (March 30, 1432 – May 3, 1481) or, in modern Turkish, Sultan Mehmet Fatih; known as Mahomet or Mohammed II in early modern Europe) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1444 to September 1446, and later from February 1451 to 1481. At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople, now Istanbul, bringing an end to the Byzantine Empire.<br/><br/> Sultan Mehmet Fatih seized power in Constantinople in 1471. He commissioned the painter Bellini to travel in 1479 from Venice to the Turkish capital to paint portraits for two years.<br/><br/> For centuries Venice was Europe’s prime trading partner with the Middle East and the Byzantine Empire in particular. Venetian naval and commercial power was unrivalled in Europe until it lost a series of wars to the Ottoman armies in the 15th century.
Mehmed II (March 30, 1432 – May 3, 1481) or, in modern Turkish, Sultan Mehmet Fatih; known as Mahomet or Mohammed II in early modern Europe) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1444 to September 1446, and later from February 1451 to 1481. At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople, now Istanbul, bringing an end to the Byzantine Empire.<br/><br/> Sultan Mehmet Fatih seized power in Constantinople in 1471. He commissioned the painter Bellini to travel in 1479 from Venice to the Turkish capital to paint portraits for two years.<br/><br/> For centuries Venice was Europe’s prime trading partner with the Middle East and the Byzantine Empire in particular. Venetian naval and commercial power was unrivalled in Europe until it lost a series of wars to the Ottoman armies in the 15th century.
Mamluks were originally soldiers or slaves who converted to Islam. A Mamluk army seized control of Egypt and Syria and established the ‘Mamluk Sultanate’ from 1250 to 1517 during which time they defeated or repelled Mongol invaders and Christian crusaders.
Moro's reign was marked by the beginning of a long war between Venice and the Turks. In 1463 Pope Pius II sent Moro a consecrated sword with the intention of convincing Venice to join the anti-Turk alliance. The reaction in Venice was initially hesitant as the Republic's main priority was their economic interests.<br/><br/> In April 1463, 10 years after the conquest of Constantinople, Turkish troops occupied the Venetian fortress of Argos in Greece. The Latin Patriarch Cardinal Johannes Bessarion traveled to Venice to call on the Republic to join the 'defense of the faith'; ie join the war against the Turks. That same year a coalition was formed between Venice, Hungary and the Albanian prince Skanderbeg with the blessing of the Pope to counter the threat of Sultan Mehmed II's aggressive policy of conquest. The coalition succeeded in temporarily halting Turkish expansion, however the new territorial limits acquired by the Turks in their conquests had by and large accepted.<br/><br/> In 1469 the Venetian fleet commander Niccolò Canal retook the town of Ainos in Thrace, but he was not able to defend the island of Negroponte (Euboea), a major granary of Venice, from Turkish attack. Euboea was conquered by the Sultan while inflicting enormous losses on the Venetian forces.
The zigzagged text in the margins is a continuation of the manuscript written to economize on the use of expensive imported paper. The Qur’an (literally “the recitation”) is the main religious text of Islam. Muslims believe the Qur’an to be the verbal divine guidance and moral direction for mankind. Muslims also consider the original Arabic verbal text to be the final revelation of God. Muslims believe that the Qur’an was revealed from God to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel from 610 to 632 CE, the year of the Prophet’s death. Muhammad recited the Qur’an to his thousands of followers, who recited it until they had memorized it. He also dictated it to his scribes (Muhammad is said to have been illiterate) who wrote down its verses during his life. Shortly after Muhammad's death the Qur’an was established textually into a single book form by the order of the first Caliph Abu Bakr.
Throughout the Renaissance, Venice’s relationship with the Ottoman Empire was sustained by trade but punctuated by conflict. In this naval battle, 22 ships from Venice and Malta defeated the Turkish fleet of 36 galleys.
Mehmed II (March 30, 1432 – May 3, 1481) or, in modern Turkish, Sultan Mehmet Fatih; known as Mahomet or Mohammed II in early modern Europe) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1444 to September 1446, and later from February 1451 to 1481. At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople, now Istanbul, bringing an end to the Byzantine Empire.<br/><br/>Sultan Mehmet Fatih seized power in Constantinople in 1471. He commissioned the painter Bellini to travel in 1479 from Venice to the Turkish capital to paint portraits for two years.<br/><br/>For centuries Venice was Europe’s prime trading partner with the Middle East and the Byzantine Empire in particular. Venetian naval and commercial power was unrivalled in Europe until it lost a series of wars to the Ottoman armies in the 15th century.
Now housed at the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston, this painting reflects Bellini’s passion for Eastern cultures. Originally commissioned by Fatih Sultan Mehmet II in 1479 to go to Constantinople to paint portraits of the sultan for two years, the Venetian painter was strongly influenced by Ottoman traditions and fashions.
Gritti was born in Bardolino, near Verona. He spent much of his early life in Constantinople as a grain merchant, looking after Venetian interests. In the late 1490s he was using his commercial correspondence for sending encoded information to Venice regarding the movements of the Turkish navy. In 1499, he was imprisoned on charges of espionage, but escaped execution due to his friendship with the vizier, and was released several years later.<br/><br/> In the early sixteenth century Venice lost nearly all its territory on the Italian mainland, and Gritti played an important part in the events connected with this loss and the eventual return to the status quo ante. In 1509, after the Venetian defeat at the Battle of Agnadello, Gritti was appointed as proveditor to the Venetian army in Treviso; ordered by the Council of Ten to support revolts against the invaders, he successfully engineered the return of Padua to Venetian hands, and its subsequent defence against the Emperor. In 1510, following the death of Nicolo di Pitigliano, Gritti took command of Venice's army, but was forced to withdraw to Venice by French advances. He continued as proveditor through to the end of the League of Cambrai and the subsequent war of the Holy League. In 1512, he led the negotiations with Francis I that resulted in Venice leaving the League and allying with France.<br/><br/> Elected Doge in 1523, Gritti concluded a treaty with Charles V, ending Venice's active involvement in the Italian Wars. He attempted to maintain the neutrality of the Republic in the face of the continued struggle between Charles and Francis, urging both to turn their attention to the advances of the Ottoman Empire in Hungary. However, he could not prevent Suleiman I from attacking Corfu in 1537, drawing Venice into a war with the Ottomans. He died in 1538.
Selim II Sarkhosh Hashoink (Ottoman Turkish: سليم ثانى SelÄ«m-i sÄnÄ«, Turkish:II.Selim; 28 May 1524 – 12 December/15 December 1574) was born in Istanbul, a son of Suleiman the Magnificent and his fourth and favourite Ruthenian wife Hürrem Sultan (Roxelana).<br/><br/> Military expeditions in the Hejaz and Yemen were successful, but his conquest of Cyprus in 1571 led to the calamitous naval defeat against Spain and Venice in the Battle of Lepanto in the same year, freeing the Mediterranean Sea from corsairs.<br/><br/> The Empire's shattered fleets were soon restored (in just six months; it consisted of about 150 galleys and 8 galleasses) and the Ottomans maintained control of the Mediterranean (1573). In August 1574, months before Selim's death, the Ottomans regained control of Tunisia from Spain who had controlled it since 1572.
ShÄh ‘AbbÄs the Great (or ShÄh ‘AbbÄs I) (Persian: شاه عباس بزرگ) (January 27, 1571 – January 19, 1629) was Shah (king) of Iran, and generally considered the greatest ruler of the Safavid dynasty. He was the third son of Shah Mohammad.<br/><br/> Abbas came to the throne during a troubled time for Iran. Under his weak-willed father, the country was riven with discord between the different factions of the Qizilbash army, who killed Abbas' mother and elder brother. Meanwhile, Iran's enemies, the Ottoman Empire and the Uzbeks, exploited this political chaos to seize territory for themselves.<br/><br/> In 1587, one of the Qizilbash leaders, Murshid Qoli Khan, overthrew Shah Mohammed in a coup and placed the 16-year-old Abbas on the throne. But Abbas was no puppet and soon seized power for himself. He reduced the influence of the Qizilbash in the government and the military and reformed the army, enabling him to fight the Ottomans and Uzbeks and reconquer Iran's lost provinces. He also took back land from the Portuguese and the Mughals.
The Cretan War (Greek: ΚρητικÏŒς ΠÏŒλεμος) or War of Candia (Italian: Guerra di Candia), as the Fifth Ottoman–Venetian War is better known, was a conflict between the Republic of Venice and her allies (chief among them the Knights of Malta, the Papal States and France) against the Ottoman Empire and the Barbary States, fought over the island of Crete, Venice's largest and richest overseas possession.<br/><br/> The war lasted from 1645 to 1669 and was fought in Crete and in numerous naval engagements and raids around the Aegean Sea, with Dalmatia providing a secondary theater of operations.
On 23 May 1480 an Ottoman fleet of 160 ships appeared before Rhodes, at the gulf of Trianda, along with an army of 70,000 men under the command of Gedik Ahmed Pasha or Mesih Pasha. The Knights Hospitaller garrison was led by Grand Master Pierre d'Aubusson. The Knights were reinforced from France by 500 knights and 2,000 soldiers under d'Aubusson's brother Antoine.<br/><br/> The Ottomans first strategic goal was to capture the Tower of St Nicholas, which was the knights key-point in the defence of the two harbours: the commercial, Mandraki, and the one to the east bay of Akandia. The Turkish artillery kept up an unbroken bombardment and on 9 June the infantry made a series of attacks. Grand Master d'Aubusson himself sped to the aid of the garrison and after a fierce struggle the enemy was repelled.<br/><br/> Shortly after came a second attack on the tower, this time on the eastern sector of the wall towards the bay of Akandia, which was the battle station of the 'tongue' of Italy and was quite weak. During the bombardment from the Turkish artillery, the Knights and the people meanwhile dug a new moat on the inside of the wall at this point and constructed a new internal fortification. Once again the Knights reacted valiantly and decisively and after a bitter battle with many casualties on both sides, the danger was once more averted.<br/><br/> The last act of the drama was played out in the Jewish quarter of the city. At dawn on 27 July the Turks launched a vigorous offensive and their vanguard of around 2,500 janissaries managed to take the tower of Italy and enter the city. A frenzied struggle ensued. The grand master, wounded in five places, directed the battle and fought with lance in hand. After three hours of fighting the Turks were decimated and the exhausted survivors began to withdraw.
ShÄh ‘AbbÄs the Great (or ShÄh ‘AbbÄs I) (Persian: شاه عباس بزرگ) (January 27, 1571 – January 19, 1629) was Shah (king) of Iran, and generally considered the greatest ruler of the Safavid dynasty. He was the third son of Shah Mohammad.<br/><br/> Abbas came to the throne during a troubled time for Iran. Under his weak-willed father, the country was riven with discord between the different factions of the Qizilbash army, who killed Abbas' mother and elder brother. Meanwhile, Iran's enemies, the Ottoman Empire and the Uzbeks, exploited this political chaos to seize territory for themselves.<br/><br/> In 1587, one of the Qizilbash leaders, Murshid Qoli Khan, overthrew Shah Mohammed in a coup and placed the 16-year-old Abbas on the throne. But Abbas was no puppet and soon seized power for himself. He reduced the influence of the Qizilbash in the government and the military and reformed the army, enabling him to fight the Ottomans and Uzbeks and reconquer Iran's lost provinces. He also took back land from the Portuguese and the Mughals.
ShÄh ‘AbbÄs the Great (or ShÄh ‘AbbÄs I) (Persian: شاه عباس بزرگ) (January 27, 1571 – January 19, 1629) was Shah (king) of Iran, and generally considered the greatest ruler of the Safavid dynasty. He was the third son of Shah Mohammad.<br/><br/> Abbas came to the throne during a troubled time for Iran. Under his weak-willed father, the country was riven with discord between the different factions of the Qizilbash army, who killed Abbas' mother and elder brother. Meanwhile, Iran's enemies, the Ottoman Empire and the Uzbeks, exploited this political chaos to seize territory for themselves.<br/><br/> In 1587, one of the Qizilbash leaders, Murshid Qoli Khan, overthrew Shah Mohammed in a coup and placed the 16-year-old Abbas on the throne. But Abbas was no puppet and soon seized power for himself. He reduced the influence of the Qizilbash in the government and the military and reformed the army, enabling him to fight the Ottomans and Uzbeks and reconquer Iran's lost provinces. He also took back land from the Portuguese and the Mughals.